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在二十世紀(jì)九十年代，新的管理見解對組織機(jī)構(gòu)應(yīng)當(dāng)如何被管理、下屬應(yīng)當(dāng)如何被指導(dǎo)、政府項(xiàng)目的消費(fèi)者應(yīng)當(dāng)如何被對待等問題有重大影響。1992年，巴澤勒(MichaelBarzelay)與阿摩亞尼(BabakArmajani)發(fā)表《突破官僚制：政府管理的新視野》。該書基于在明尼蘇達(dá)州的革新實(shí)驗(yàn)，即通過強(qiáng)調(diào)顧客服務(wù)、給雇員授權(quán)、有選擇性的競爭和減少行政規(guī)章制度而改變公共項(xiàng)目。兩位作者認(rèn)為，政府不應(yīng)當(dāng)是官僚型、規(guī)章制度約束、強(qiáng)調(diào)控制和沒有靈活性，他們向韋伯型的傳統(tǒng)組織結(jié)構(gòu)和運(yùn)作機(jī)理提出了挑戰(zhàn)。

如果說巴澤勒與阿摩亞尼對傳統(tǒng)管理的批評代表著對管理體制改革的呼吁，那么，質(zhì)量管理運(yùn)動則提供了內(nèi)在改革的動力。最初的全方位質(zhì)量管理(TotalQualityManagement-TQM)源于私有企業(yè)部門，但《公共生產(chǎn)力與管理評論》(PublicProductivityandManagementReview-PPMR)在過去二十多年的努力也使我們認(rèn)識到TQM對于公共部門機(jī)構(gòu)業(yè)績與質(zhì)量改善的重要性。PPMR提供了豐富的案例以及公共機(jī)構(gòu)如何改善、引入、調(diào)整并保持連續(xù)的質(zhì)量改進(jìn)的理論性評論。PPMR雜志的資深主編霍哲(MarcHolzer)教授在生產(chǎn)力與質(zhì)量管理(ProductivityandQualityManagement)(1995)一文中評論了質(zhì)量管理以及質(zhì)量管理對于公共部門管理的啟迪。很明顯，九十年代的TQM已經(jīng)成為公共管理的基本方法。TQM的核心特征是統(tǒng)計(jì)評估、顧客信息反饋、雇員參與質(zhì)量改善、供應(yīng)商合作。這些TQM的手段和方法已經(jīng)成為當(dāng)今多數(shù)經(jīng)理的“管理常識”。不少人認(rèn)為，質(zhì)量管理不僅適用于制造業(yè)，而且更適合服務(wù)部門。質(zhì)量管理已成為公共管理的部分基礎(chǔ)。

公共政策與分析的迅猛發(fā)展

首先，許多公共事務(wù)學(xué)院在加州大學(xué)伯克利分校的帶領(lǐng)下紛紛部分或全部轉(zhuǎn)向公共政策，盡管錫拉丘茲大學(xué)麥克斯韋爾學(xué)院及南加州大學(xué)仍然高舉公共行政大旗，亦增添了政策研究方向。最初的政策研究包括政策形成理論、政策分析技術(shù)、政策執(zhí)行、政策計(jì)劃和政策評估等，重心開始轉(zhuǎn)向政策形成（政策制定）和政策內(nèi)容（政策分析）。其次，一批新成立的雜志為政策研究增添了活力。如政策分析和管理雜志(JournalofPolicyAnalysisandManagement)、政策研究雜志(PolicyStudiesJournal)、政策研究評論(PolicyStudiesReview)以及政策科學(xué)(PolicySciences)等。最后，進(jìn)入二十世紀(jì)九十年代，政策科學(xué)已經(jīng)成為一門獨(dú)立的研究領(lǐng)域，大有與公共行政學(xué)分庭抗禮之勢。政策分析融入經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)、政治學(xué)、公共財(cái)政、系統(tǒng)理論以及其它社會科學(xué)學(xué)科，以研究公共政策如何形成和如何完善政府項(xiàng)目。

結(jié)束語：政府改革——永恒的主題

歸納起來，萊特(PaulC.Light)在《改革的浪潮：改善政府工作，1945-1995》(1997)一書中，總結(jié)了改革的四大浪潮：1.科學(xué)管理，強(qiáng)調(diào)嚴(yán)格的等級制、分工、清楚的命令鏈；2.向浪費(fèi)宣戰(zhàn)，重點(diǎn)是監(jiān)督員、審計(jì)員、核對員、評審員；3.警惕的眼睛，倡導(dǎo)陽光、公開性、透明度；4.解放管理，呼吁讓管理者去管理。

財(cái)政緊縮和業(yè)績改善只是政府面臨的諸多壓力的一部分。進(jìn)入二十世紀(jì)，公眾對政府的信心在下降，這或許是政治家們不得不反復(fù)進(jìn)行政府改革的主要原因?？肆诸D總統(tǒng)上任3個月就宣布了他的改革計(jì)劃，于1993年成立了由副總統(tǒng)戈?duì)枓鞄浀摹懊绹鴺I(yè)績評論委員會”(NPR)。當(dāng)我們回眸二十世紀(jì)，就不難發(fā)現(xiàn)無論是1910,1937,1949,1972,1982，還是1993的政府改革，都有一個共同的假設(shè)：即美國聯(lián)邦政府的機(jī)能失調(diào)、組織渙散、業(yè)績平平——不能讓公眾滿意。

1883年彭德爾頓法案創(chuàng)立了美國公務(wù)員委員會，公務(wù)員制度的建立以及城市膨脹的需求催生了美國的公共行政學(xué)。1887年，威爾遜提出了創(chuàng)立獨(dú)立的行政學(xué)學(xué)科的構(gòu)想。隨后，古德諾于1900年談到行政學(xué)與政治學(xué)的分離。再之后，泰勒開始了科學(xué)管理的研究。30年代的羅斯福新政，尤其是布郎諾報告直接誘發(fā)了政府部門的膨脹和改革——1993年至2000年執(zhí)政的克林頓仍舊在重塑政府。一次次改革，一次次不同的主題，變化的是內(nèi)容，不變的是要改變、要改革的努力。

改革政府并非是美國的獨(dú)有現(xiàn)象。無論是東方還是西方，無論是北半球還是南半球，無論是工業(yè)發(fā)達(dá)國家、發(fā)展中國家還是前蘇聯(lián)或東歐轉(zhuǎn)軌國家，在二十世紀(jì)末都洶涌著改革的浪潮。無論是源于財(cái)政危機(jī)、管理危機(jī)或是信仰危機(jī)，出路只有一條，那就是不斷的改革。改革政府不僅是我們時代的主旋律，也必將是未來政府所要面臨的長期挑戰(zhàn)。

作者感謝下列教授在《美國公共行政學(xué)百年回顧》及相關(guān)課程所給予筆者的指導(dǎo)和幫助：霍哲教授(MarcHolzer)、達(dá)布里克教授(MelvinDubnick)、威克（女）教授(MarciaWhicker)、梅戈特（女）教授(AstridMerget)、英格拉姆（女）教授(PatriciaIngraham)、布雷思萊德教授(StuartBretchneider)、斯特勞思曼教授(JeffreyStraussman)。

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