茶文化的寓意范文

時(shí)間:2023-07-12 17:40:55

導(dǎo)語(yǔ):如何才能寫好一篇茶文化的寓意,這就需要搜集整理更多的資料和文獻(xiàn),歡迎閱讀由公務(wù)員之家整理的十篇范文,供你借鑒。

茶文化的寓意

篇1

火是人類最重要的能源。如果沒有火,人類不僅會(huì)失去物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ),也會(huì)失去心靈、精神和文明;如果沒有火,人類就不可能走出蠻荒,不可能建立文明社會(huì)。奧運(yùn)火炬的寓意,來(lái)自古希臘神話傳說,是為了紀(jì)念普羅米修斯,他在烈焰熊熊的太陽(yáng)車經(jīng)過時(shí),偷到了火種并帶給了人類?;饘?duì)于人類而言,就是走出野蠻,走向開放,向浩瀚的宇宙索求能量和靈魂。古希臘哲學(xué)家赫拉克利特(公元前540年—前480年)認(rèn)為萬(wàn)物的本原是火,一切都在流變之中?!斑@個(gè)有秩序的宇宙對(duì)萬(wàn)物都是相同的,它既不是神也不是人所創(chuàng)造的,它過去、現(xiàn)在和將來(lái)永遠(yuǎn)是一團(tuán)永恒的活火,按一定尺度燃燒,一定尺度熄滅?!?/p>

中國(guó)被公認(rèn)為是世界文化發(fā)達(dá)最早的文明古國(guó)之一。其中青銅文化和陶瓷文化是中國(guó)古代文化遺產(chǎn)中的重要組成部分。青銅器和陶瓷產(chǎn)生的元素是一致的,那就是,它們都是金、木、水、火、土的有機(jī)組合,并通過其中最關(guān)鍵的媒介——火,而呈現(xiàn)出各自獨(dú)特的材質(zhì)感和文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)。青銅器和陶瓷在逐步的演進(jìn)中,不斷地豐富自身,它們是中華文明的物態(tài)化和結(jié)晶體。青銅器和陶瓷的源頭都來(lái)自于原始上古文明,首先可以肯定的是,先有了陶器,而后才有了青銅器。鑄造青銅器的“范”、“模”等就是由陶燒成的,可以說,陶瓷和青銅器在中華文明的長(zhǎng)河中是共生與互動(dòng)、相輔相成、此消彼長(zhǎng)的。青銅器的材質(zhì)和器形光致茂美、質(zhì)地堅(jiān)硬,符合夏、商、周以來(lái)國(guó)家的意志和尚“禮”之需及戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)武器之堅(jiān)銳,因而成為當(dāng)時(shí)文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的主流,此時(shí)代也被稱為青銅時(shí)代。陶器和青銅器的出現(xiàn)和火的發(fā)明與使用有著密切關(guān)系。大約8000多年前的新石器時(shí)代,人類在實(shí)踐過程中利用泥土和水混合,捏制出各種造型,然后曬干,燒烤后就成了陶器。陶器的出現(xiàn),標(biāo)志著原始人階段的結(jié)束、新石器時(shí)代的到來(lái)。原始陶器主要是生活用品和祭祀用品,在長(zhǎng)期的實(shí)踐中,人們將本民族對(duì)自然、圖騰、靈物、祖先的崇拜觀念融合到陶器的器形和紋飾中,也形成后來(lái)青銅器的觀念和審美的有機(jī)結(jié)合。到公元前4040—前2240年大汶口文化時(shí)期,陶器盛行三足器和圈足器,器形有罐形鼎、缽形鼎、壺形鼎、背壺、長(zhǎng)頸壺、深腹罐、高柄豆等。這也證明青銅的器形和紋樣是在陶鼎的基礎(chǔ)上發(fā)展而來(lái)的。而在6700年前西安半坡出土的迄今為止中國(guó)最早的陶瓷樂器——陶塤,還有新石器時(shí)代晚期陜西長(zhǎng)縣客省莊出土的陶饒與商代流行的銅饒基本一致,說明后來(lái)的銅饒是由陶饒發(fā)展而來(lái)。諸如陶鬲(圖1)、陶鼓等等發(fā)展到青銅樂器體現(xiàn)了青銅時(shí)代“禮樂”的博大氣勢(shì)“黃鐘大呂”、“八音齊鳴”,達(dá)到當(dāng)時(shí)人類金屬冶煉和音律學(xué)的最高成就。

在上古傳說中的黃帝和蚩尤作戰(zhàn)時(shí),就有了使用青銅兵器的文獻(xiàn)紀(jì)錄??脊虐l(fā)掘發(fā)現(xiàn)的最早青銅器,是1957年甘肅馬家窯和馬廠文化遺址出土的銅刀(公元前3000年至公元前2300年)。其后,青銅器還在河南偃師二里頭遺址中發(fā)現(xiàn),在那里出土了制作原始的青銅小刀、爵、錐、鈴等。這些青銅器,多是仿照同時(shí)期的石、骨、蚌、陶器制成的,其胎質(zhì)很薄,鑄造工藝稚嫩,帶有一定的原始性。它們對(duì)社會(huì)文化、生產(chǎn)、生活的影響較小,在文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)上還處于萌芽狀態(tài)。它們?cè)谑鲿r(shí)代的母體中孕育著,與大量的石器、陶器共存,并相互影響相互推動(dòng)。由制陶工藝所積累的火侯知識(shí)和經(jīng)驗(yàn)影響和推動(dòng)了冶煉鑄造青銅器技術(shù)的日漸成熟,鑄造青銅器的“范”等就是由陶燒成。而青銅器成型后,其器形穩(wěn)重、質(zhì)地堅(jiān)硬、紋飾光致茂美等優(yōu)良特性及構(gòu)圖和秩序之美得到了充分體現(xiàn),體現(xiàn)出中國(guó)文化是個(gè)道家講的“氣”的世界;另一方面又是個(gè)“禮”的世界;青銅材質(zhì)本身的凝重厚實(shí)正好對(duì)應(yīng)了“禮”的莊嚴(yán)齊一,其中的饕餮形象暗合了“禮”的一個(gè)重要特征——威嚴(yán)與秩序,成為國(guó)家政權(quán)、個(gè)人身份地位的標(biāo)志。

文獻(xiàn)記載夏代根據(jù)國(guó)家分成九州而鑄九鼎?!跋蔫T九鼎”說明夏代的青銅鑄造已進(jìn)入高度發(fā)展的時(shí)期。夏代以后商代青銅器在此基礎(chǔ)上得以迅速提升,成為古中國(guó)文化精神物化的載體,由于這時(shí)期形成了獨(dú)特的以青銅器為文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)主流的文明形式而被稱為青銅時(shí)代。從青銅器文化藝術(shù)的形態(tài)傳承演變歷程可將其分為三個(gè)發(fā)展傳承轉(zhuǎn)換階段:商代的以“神”為中心;周代的以“禮”為中心;兩漢時(shí)代的以“人”為中心。神性向人性的回歸是青銅時(shí)代思想觀念發(fā)展的總趨勢(shì)。從最初的饕餮紋所表現(xiàn)的尊神事鬼、神性彌漫的社會(huì)走向關(guān)注現(xiàn)實(shí)、注重現(xiàn)實(shí)、凸顯人性。這種由神性向人性的回歸,奠定了中國(guó)文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)以后的發(fā)展之路,使中國(guó)走上了一條與西方不同的發(fā)展道路,即注重此岸世界,而較少關(guān)注彼岸世界。青銅文化藝術(shù)發(fā)展到東漢末期以后,由于制瓷技術(shù)成熟,原料豐富,陶瓷較之青銅器在制作上更便捷,使中國(guó)陶瓷以迅猛的速度發(fā)展壯大起來(lái),并廣泛深入地進(jìn)入社會(huì)生活的方方面面,很快取代了青銅器在社會(huì)生活中的地位。青銅器退出了文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的主流圈而由陶瓷登上了歷史的舞臺(tái)。陶瓷進(jìn)入魏晉,再經(jīng)過唐宋的發(fā)展,融入宋代“理”學(xué)和宋人心態(tài)及文人畫精神,帶來(lái)了其在宋元明清的高度發(fā)展,成為文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的主流,從而使中國(guó)進(jìn)入陶瓷時(shí)代(昌南時(shí)代——英語(yǔ)中China,字頭大寫意為中國(guó),字頭小寫則指瓷器也即是景德鎮(zhèn)古稱昌南之譯音)。以青銅時(shí)代和陶瓷時(shí)代為兩座文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的高峰構(gòu)成了五千年文明的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的演變過程。本文著重從青銅器和陶瓷文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)解析比較中,推演出中國(guó)文化之火的躍動(dòng)之魅和歷史長(zhǎng)河的流動(dòng)之美。

二、青銅時(shí)代的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的特點(diǎn)和成就

夏商周青銅器文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)體現(xiàn)為國(guó)家嚴(yán)格控制的禮器,鼎(圖2)是青銅禮器中最為重要的一個(gè)品種,其造型特征為由腹、足、耳三部分組成。大腹可以盛載食物,高足架空可以燒火加熱,空耳可以穿過長(zhǎng)杠利于搬運(yùn)。盡管鼎的實(shí)用意義是盛放或烹煮食物,但鼎的真正價(jià)值卻體現(xiàn)為國(guó)家政權(quán)、個(gè)人身份與地位的標(biāo)志。它一般多用于統(tǒng)治階級(jí)的祭祀和宴飲,具有區(qū)別尊卑貴賤的功能,是權(quán)力的象征,并根據(jù)地位的不同進(jìn)行嚴(yán)格等級(jí)上的分配使用制度“:天子九鼎,諸侯七鼎,大夫五鼎,元士三鼎或一鼎”。鼎在當(dāng)時(shí)人們的思想意識(shí)中占有重要地位,東周時(shí)一幕幕問鼎、奪鼎、追鼎的歷史傳說,及秦始皇泗水撈鼎,漢武帝得鼎改元的歷史記載,成語(yǔ)“一言九鼎”、“問鼎中原”、“三足鼎立”等等都源自于鼎的象征意義的引申。青銅器具有記錄與傳承中華文化歷史的功能。青銅器中的銘文內(nèi)容豐富,有祭祀祖先、征伐、紀(jì)功、冊(cè)命和賞賜等記載,生動(dòng)而具體地補(bǔ)充了歷史文獻(xiàn)記載的不足,為研究青銅時(shí)代的人文歷史提供了重要的原始資料。在祭祀和典禮中青銅樂器更是不可或缺,青銅樂器有如饒、鐘、鈴、鼓等,并有按音律學(xué)原理編成的以編鐘、編罄為主的大型青銅樂器組合陣,體現(xiàn)了青銅時(shí)代“禮樂”的博大氣勢(shì)。“鐘鳴鼎食”即反映了當(dāng)時(shí)在祭祀和典禮的盛況。“黃鐘大呂”、“八音齊鳴”是我國(guó)古代音樂中所用的兩句成語(yǔ),以“黃鐘大呂”來(lái)形容音樂的莊嚴(yán)、文辭的莊重或場(chǎng)面的熱烈;以“八音齊鳴”來(lái)形容各種樂器一起熱烈地演奏。湖北隨縣出土的戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)期的曾侯乙編鐘,是目前世界上僅有的保留著原有音響的一套特大型定音古樂器,也是世界上保留下來(lái)的最古老的12個(gè)半音的樂器。編鐘共56件,分上、中、下三層。經(jīng)檢測(cè)每件編鐘不僅都能發(fā)音,而且能發(fā)兩個(gè)不同的音,可以演奏各種現(xiàn)代樂曲,而且音質(zhì)純正,音色優(yōu)美,達(dá)到當(dāng)時(shí)人類金屬冶煉和音律學(xué)的最高成就。

青銅時(shí)代把中國(guó)文化藝術(shù)推進(jìn)到歷史的高峰。春秋戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)期的百家爭(zhēng)鳴中產(chǎn)生了分別以老子和孔子為代表的道家思想和儒家思想,形成了中國(guó)特有的出世與入世的哲學(xué),它們是幾千年來(lái)注入到中國(guó)人血脈中的宇宙觀和人生觀。中國(guó)藝術(shù)從原始到理性的演化,其文學(xué)終端是青銅時(shí)代的《詩(shī)經(jīng)》。《詩(shī)經(jīng)》中風(fēng)、雅、頌的排列體現(xiàn)了一種理性的規(guī)范,同時(shí)也顯出一種宇宙觀。風(fēng)、雅、頌是青銅時(shí)代的等級(jí)秩序,也是一種天人關(guān)系。也就是說中華文明的精神內(nèi)核及框架在青銅時(shí)代已經(jīng)聚集和搭建完成。青銅時(shí)代造就了秦漢氣魄,使秦漢時(shí)期的文化形態(tài)顯示出一種胸懷之大、力量之大、氣魄之大、趣味之大。秦漢文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的這種大氣魄,來(lái)源于青銅的強(qiáng)悍、陽(yáng)剛、莊重,勃發(fā)于新統(tǒng)一的現(xiàn)實(shí)力量及容納萬(wàn)有、法天象地的想象心靈。正是因?yàn)榍貪h時(shí)期民風(fēng)的淳樸、大氣、強(qiáng)悍、陽(yáng)剛、包容性強(qiáng),才有了沿用至今的“漢族”、“男子漢”等名詞……從青銅器文化藝術(shù)的形態(tài)傳承演變歷程可將其分為三個(gè)發(fā)展傳承轉(zhuǎn)換階段:商代的以“神”為中心;周代的以“禮”為中心;兩漢時(shí)代的以“人”為中心。神性向人性的回歸是青銅時(shí)代思想觀念發(fā)展的總趨勢(shì)。從戰(zhàn)國(guó)中期開始的青銅器文化藝術(shù)性態(tài)以“人”為中心的趨勢(shì)到漢代得到了最完美的體現(xiàn),追求人本,體驗(yàn)人生樂趣、容納萬(wàn)有、法天象地的想象心靈成為時(shí)代思潮、時(shí)代風(fēng)貌。這個(gè)時(shí)期的青銅文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的轉(zhuǎn)換——由為以“神”、“禮”為中心轉(zhuǎn)變成為以“人”為中心。青銅器神秘的宗教外衣及莊嚴(yán)的禮制思想被剝離掉了。漢代青銅器在戰(zhàn)國(guó)的基礎(chǔ)上,將春秋以來(lái)的諸種青銅工藝推向頂峰,集青銅器鑄造工藝之大成。青銅器文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的演變過程實(shí)質(zhì)上是:一個(gè)由幻想到現(xiàn)實(shí)的過程,一個(gè)以神為本到以人為本的過程。天人關(guān)系的變化是青銅器文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)演變的關(guān)鍵因素。

中國(guó)青銅文化經(jīng)歷了2000余年的發(fā)展歷程,青銅時(shí)代把中國(guó)文化藝術(shù)推進(jìn)到歷史的高峰,青銅器作為2000余年時(shí)代精神和文化藝術(shù)的物質(zhì)載體也留下了時(shí)代演變社會(huì)變革的痕跡,青銅時(shí)代中華文明的精神內(nèi)核及框架的形成,為陶瓷時(shí)代的到來(lái)打下了堅(jiān)實(shí)的精神與文化取向的基礎(chǔ)。東漢晚期,由于制瓷原料豐富,制瓷技術(shù)發(fā)展成熟,瓷器制作比青銅鑄造更為方便。瓷器沒有漆器和鐵器本身所有的局限,可以廣泛地用于人們?nèi)粘I畹脑S多方面,并且它在材質(zhì)感上的似玉非玉的品性,符合中國(guó)人自遠(yuǎn)古而來(lái)形成的玉石文化的精神追求。這樣,陶瓷很快取代了青銅器在人們?nèi)粘I钪械牡匚?。青銅文化演變到以“人”為中心的精神與文化取向及藝術(shù)追求為陶瓷奠定了文化根基和美學(xué)基礎(chǔ),于是,由陶瓷傳承了青銅器作為文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)主流的歷史地位。青銅文化藝術(shù)退出了歷史的舞臺(tái),而由陶瓷閃亮登場(chǎng)。但,這并不說青銅文化已經(jīng)消亡,隨著東漢末年佛教的傳入中國(guó),青銅制作的精美的佛像、香爐、法器及錢幣、銅鏡等等一直在生產(chǎn)鑄造。青銅器的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)一直在展現(xiàn)它獨(dú)特的影響和魅力。只是青銅器退出了文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的主流圈,而由符合時(shí)代需求的陶瓷登上了歷史的舞臺(tái)。

三、陶瓷時(shí)代之藝術(shù)形態(tài)的特點(diǎn)和成就

我們?cè)谌粘I钪新牭降氖恰疤沾伞保鋵?shí)陶瓷是陶器與瓷器的統(tǒng)稱,從發(fā)展的歷程來(lái)看是先有陶器,后有瓷器,在西漢時(shí)陶器和瓷器才分開。魏晉南北朝的中國(guó),進(jìn)入了瓷器時(shí)代。從東漢到南北朝,我國(guó)青瓷逐步成熟起來(lái),但這一時(shí)期的瓷器無(wú)論是造型還是紋飾都與青銅器有聯(lián)系。這時(shí)瓷器的造型特征是清秀挺拔,與當(dāng)時(shí)人們的審美愛好相一致,更多的是反映人和社會(huì),人已成為陶器造型的主體。陶瓷藝術(shù)裝飾語(yǔ)言反映了人間生活的千姿百態(tài),反映出人們對(duì)于自然和自身認(rèn)識(shí)的深入。在這種語(yǔ)境和情境中,其藝術(shù)形式體現(xiàn)出中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文士的既入世又出世的矛盾狀態(tài)。魏晉以來(lái),審美風(fēng)氣變化,崇尚古拙質(zhì)樸、簡(jiǎn)淡空疏的“六朝風(fēng)韻”與講情致、講風(fēng)神、講個(gè)性的魏晉風(fēng)度。這時(shí)期少了青銅時(shí)代的國(guó)家意志和大氣磅礴、容納萬(wàn)有、法天象地的特點(diǎn),而轉(zhuǎn)為依法自然、逸氣飄然、秀骨清相的文人士大夫的風(fēng)神氣韻。唐代是中國(guó)藝術(shù)的高峰,又是中國(guó)文化藝術(shù)從前期轉(zhuǎn)向后期的關(guān)鍵。唐代的時(shí)代精神體現(xiàn)為豐富的藝術(shù)創(chuàng)造,為后期社會(huì)奠定了一系列藝術(shù)類型和藝術(shù)境界的根基。其中青瓷、白瓷、唐三彩代表了唐代陶瓷的最高水平。唐代陶瓷經(jīng)過絲綢之路廣泛傳播到海外,促進(jìn)了中外文化藝術(shù)的交流。陶瓷“自唐代始而有窯名”,這種傳統(tǒng)習(xí)慣一直沿用至今。

陶瓷正漸漸脫離青銅器的影響,開始展現(xiàn)出具有自身特色的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)。自魏晉帶著深刻社會(huì)文化藝術(shù)背景的青瓷風(fēng)行以來(lái),到了宋代得到了更廣泛的尊重和發(fā)展,并在原有玻璃青釉的基礎(chǔ)上,開創(chuàng)出不透明、乳濁狀的瓷釉,一改隋朝以來(lái)“南青北白”時(shí)期的一覽無(wú)余、可以透徹見底的青釉傳統(tǒng),創(chuàng)造了展現(xiàn)獨(dú)特藝術(shù)形態(tài)的乳濁釉、結(jié)晶釉、石灰堿釉和多層釉。這樣在釉色的運(yùn)用上,為陶瓷美學(xué)開辟了一種新的境界,使其彰顯出淳樸、自然、大氣的特質(zhì),不僅具有玉的質(zhì)感——“汁水瑩潤(rùn)如堆脂”的色澤,還有著自然的開片和窯變,典雅純潔而令人回味。宋代是“玉的精神”和類玉的品質(zhì)體現(xiàn)的最為深刻的時(shí)代。鈞、汝、官、哥、定五大窯(圖3、圖4)所取得卓越成就,使中國(guó)在人類制瓷史上登峰造極。它那冰肌玉骨般的素雅、沉靜品格,成為后世瓷業(yè)執(zhí)著追求的審美典范。宋代不僅傳承了歷史的優(yōu)良基因,而且開拓創(chuàng)新,為元明清瓷業(yè)的發(fā)展奠定了基礎(chǔ)。宋代文化將漢唐以來(lái)的崇高精神以更為理性的方式進(jìn)行把握,呈現(xiàn)出一種真正的中庸合度、剛?cè)嵯酀?jì)、天人合一、氣象渾成、心與理一的文化范式。這一思想相當(dāng)重要、內(nèi)涵也十分豐富。周敦頤的“希圣”、“希賢”,張載的“天人合一”,程顥的“仁體”,程頤的“理”,朱熹的“心與理一”、“氣象渾成”,王陽(yáng)明的“樂是心之本體”,劉宗周的“慎獨(dú)”,王夫之的“情景妙合無(wú)限”等,無(wú)不體現(xiàn)著“樂”的基本精神和意義,推動(dòng)并產(chǎn)生了明清浪漫主義美學(xué)思潮和明清之際的重理性、重情理統(tǒng)一的思潮。

宋代陶瓷體現(xiàn)為一種典雅的文化氣質(zhì)之美,內(nèi)斂、沉靜,追求返璞歸真的自然主義,以此來(lái)體現(xiàn)自然中物性、趣味性和哲思性,上升到了透徹了悟的哲學(xué)高度。即使是一般日用陶瓷,也有著體現(xiàn)宋代整體文化風(fēng)氣不俗的氣韻和風(fēng)姿。與宋代卓越的青瓷官窯相比,宋代民窯則更生氣勃勃、多姿多彩,同樣具有那個(gè)時(shí)代的強(qiáng)烈烙印。如磁州窯、吉州窯具有千變?nèi)f化的多彩釉色;黑釉、白釉、窯變釉、釉下彩繪等為元代青花的出現(xiàn)開啟了先河,它們是一種雄健、簡(jiǎn)潔的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)。宋代創(chuàng)造了天趣十足、自然活潑的木葉、兔豪、玳瑁、油滴、天目等各類窯變的黑釉作品,經(jīng)過幾百年的風(fēng)雨沉淀,竟然成了后人難以企及的一座高峰。筆者家鄉(xiāng)在福建武夷山脈著名的宋代建窯遺址周邊地區(qū)松溪縣,它是宋代著名九龍窯所在地。從收藏的九龍窯青瓷片和一只建窯的兔豪盞上,我們能深深體會(huì)到宋代陶瓷的獨(dú)特魅力。元代大力發(fā)展瓷業(yè),制瓷生產(chǎn)技術(shù)的日臻完善、人們審美觀念的逐步改變,給古老的瓷業(yè)生產(chǎn)帶來(lái)巨大的發(fā)展空間。以彩繪青花瓷與釉里紅為代表的釉下彩瓷成了新貴,而瓷器繪畫裝飾也變?yōu)橹髁?。由宋代的追求灰、蟹殼青、灰黃、炒米黃等顯示陰柔之美和含蓄之美,轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)殚_始吸納異族的粗獷之美。

元代為蒙古族統(tǒng)治,上層階級(jí)整體文化素養(yǎng)不高,文人地位空前降落?!熬湃迨ぁ?,儒士在社會(huì)地位中排行第九,僅高于乞丐。這造成許多文人畫家為生計(jì)而投入了陶瓷繪制的生產(chǎn)中。由于使用了釉下彩的技術(shù),釉料在燒制過程中可以產(chǎn)生筆墨在宣紙上的濃淡干枯的微妙變化,使得陶瓷紋飾更加向中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)的文人水墨畫方向靠近。把中國(guó)文人畫引入陶瓷,在瓷器上題詩(shī)作畫推動(dòng)了元代青花瓷器的大步發(fā)展,青花瓷成了中國(guó)畫技巧與制瓷工藝的完美結(jié)晶,從而帶來(lái)了藝術(shù)重心的轉(zhuǎn)移和審美趣味的變遷。文化藝術(shù)的世俗性繼續(xù)發(fā)展而被整合進(jìn)文化的整體結(jié)構(gòu)中。起于元代的白地藍(lán)花的青花瓷成熟于明代,青花瓷造型簡(jiǎn)約、素雅,瓷質(zhì)如玉溫潤(rùn)。無(wú)論是從器形還是從紋飾上,它都符合中國(guó)文化藝術(shù)在傳承與轉(zhuǎn)換中形成的簡(jiǎn)約、自由、合心性的美學(xué)基質(zhì)。它講究虛靜為本、天人合一、中庸合度,具有中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化藝術(shù)“把玩”的美學(xué)意味。永樂年間的白瓷潔凈如玉、薄如紙;宣德年間的青花瓷達(dá)到了完美無(wú)缺、合度的境界。明代在高溫單色釉方面取得了歷史性的輝煌成就,成化年間的祭紅、宣德年間的祭藍(lán)獨(dú)步當(dāng)色釉之冠。著名的景泰藍(lán)又名琺瑯,起源于元代,盛行于明景泰年間因其釉料顏色主要以藍(lán)色(孔雀藍(lán)和寶石藍(lán))為主,古稱為景泰藍(lán)。在歷經(jīng)元、明、清三代王朝的傳承與轉(zhuǎn)換中,人們創(chuàng)造了燦爛的景泰藍(lán)文化(圖5)。

明代宣德爐是繼商、周青銅器后另一件傲人的銅鑄品,是用金屬鋅配制鑄造的黃銅器,在合金配制、熔煉、鑄造及表面處理技術(shù)上都達(dá)到了一個(gè)新的高度。器形上深深地受到宋瓷文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的影響。清代的陶瓷,是中國(guó)陶瓷文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)依然風(fēng)采的又一個(gè)高峰。清代是滿族統(tǒng)治者,清軍入關(guān)后在被漢族文化逐步同化整合后,還帶著強(qiáng)烈滿族文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的特征:追求紋飾繁麗、色彩搭配對(duì)比強(qiáng)烈。這種特點(diǎn)在中國(guó)很多少數(shù)民族生活物件和服飾中都能體現(xiàn)出來(lái)。所以清代陶瓷文化藝術(shù)在彩瓷方面的發(fā)展迅猛達(dá)到成就巔峰,為中國(guó)陶瓷注入了新鮮的血液。清代陶瓷以康熙、雍正、乾隆三個(gè)歷史時(shí)期為繁榮階段,康熙時(shí)期最為精絕的五彩瓷器,其胎骨輕薄、釉色潔白瑩亮、畫工細(xì)膩、色彩柔和、線條流暢。雍乾時(shí)的粉彩到了爐火純青的高度,器形合度,色調(diào)溫潤(rùn),鮮艷而不妖冶,立體感強(qiáng),體現(xiàn)了強(qiáng)烈的時(shí)代氣息和文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的花枝招展。直到現(xiàn)在雍、乾時(shí)的粉彩還成為古玩陶瓷拍賣會(huì)上競(jìng)拍的寵兒??滴鯐r(shí)期的青花瓷在元代明代基礎(chǔ)上又更進(jìn)一步,其青花層次分明,筆韻濃淡如中國(guó)畫般墨分五色,把中國(guó)文人畫的筆墨意境和追求充分地轉(zhuǎn)換到青花瓷上,同時(shí)還將西洋畫技有機(jī)融入青花紋飾中(圖6)。

中國(guó)陶瓷是民族心靈的物態(tài)化和結(jié)晶體,有著深厚的文化底蘊(yùn)、內(nèi)涵,文脈清晰,從而形成了自身世界獨(dú)有的陶瓷文化,并隨著歷史的進(jìn)程不斷更新著自身的面貌。我們可看到中國(guó)陶瓷文化的文脈在傳承與轉(zhuǎn)換中所顯現(xiàn)出的鮮明時(shí)代特征:秦漢的氣魄、六朝風(fēng)韻、大唐氣象、宋人心態(tài)、元明清趣味,它們無(wú)不閃耀著屬于各自時(shí)代的、獨(dú)有的傲人光輝。追溯中國(guó)陶瓷文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)在歷史各個(gè)時(shí)期傳承與創(chuàng)新,最醒目的是中國(guó)繪畫形式在陶瓷上的轉(zhuǎn)換表達(dá)方式。中國(guó)陶瓷注重藝術(shù)形式與內(nèi)容的并重發(fā)展,把客觀形式中的抽象生命伸展到最強(qiáng)的限度,并極力清除了強(qiáng)加于人的“物質(zhì)美”。這就使觀眾能直接進(jìn)入陶瓷藝術(shù)的精神世界,與之發(fā)生內(nèi)在共鳴。中國(guó)陶瓷在器形、紋飾等諸方面已簡(jiǎn)約到接近點(diǎn)、線、面的抽象形式,這種形式上的視覺沖擊和思維上的強(qiáng)烈碰撞產(chǎn)生了新的視點(diǎn),導(dǎo)致了藝術(shù)樣式的變動(dòng)。陶瓷中的精髓就在于造型是否恰到好處地與它的適用度及紋飾和質(zhì)地完美結(jié)合。它注重點(diǎn)、線、面的完美融合,營(yíng)造成一個(gè)神思飛揚(yáng)、上天入地的境界,時(shí)間與空間相互存在,這樣的空間構(gòu)架必須匯入形而上的精神感受,以及具有書法線條的意蘊(yùn),而且在造型上的結(jié)束處和轉(zhuǎn)折部分強(qiáng)調(diào)不著痕跡、天然落成的形象。這是從自然主義的寫實(shí)中提取到境界層面的抽象的自然,及中國(guó)美學(xué)精神的“妙造自然”。它類似于中國(guó)畫中的意境美,即所畫的一樹一石是虛靈的、表象的,因而,反映到色釉視覺語(yǔ)言上,也是中國(guó)式的寫實(shí)。這種深入內(nèi)心的精神的寫實(shí)與中國(guó)畫的個(gè)體思想融于宇宙意識(shí)有異曲同工之妙,因?yàn)樗鼈兌俭w現(xiàn)了中國(guó)哲學(xué)精神。中國(guó)茶文化促進(jìn)了陶瓷茶具生產(chǎn)的多樣化,構(gòu)成茶道與茶器的合二為一,有著源遠(yuǎn)流長(zhǎng)的文化內(nèi)涵。延續(xù)至今的茶及茶具的使用,依然成為人們交流文化、思想、情感的精神平臺(tái)。

同樣,中國(guó)酒文化促進(jìn)了從青銅器酒具到陶瓷酒具的大量生產(chǎn)與使用,創(chuàng)造出器形多樣、雅致的陶瓷酒器造型。這是中國(guó)酒文化與陶瓷文化的融合。民以食為天,鍋碗瓢盆等各種陶瓷器具,承載著幾千年天南地北的中國(guó)豐富的飲食文化。中國(guó)陶瓷自漢、唐由“絲綢之路”“、茶馬古道”傳播到中亞、西亞、歐洲和非洲一帶的地區(qū)。自宋起從海上絲路(瓷器之路)和陸上“絲綢之路”輸往世界各地,促進(jìn)了中國(guó)與世界不同區(qū)域的經(jīng)濟(jì)、文化、藝術(shù)的交流。中國(guó)陶瓷的傳播對(duì)許多國(guó)家的文化藝術(shù)產(chǎn)生了不同程度的影響。它首先帶動(dòng)了日本、韓國(guó)的陶瓷文化藝術(shù)的產(chǎn)生,并促使兩國(guó)各自走出一條充滿地域特色的陶瓷之路。同樣,它對(duì)西亞伊斯蘭一帶的影響極大,具有伊斯蘭文化藝術(shù)特征的青花瓷不僅成為伊斯蘭人民不可缺少的日常用品,也成為他們裝飾廟宇和家庭不可缺少的陳設(shè)品。它對(duì)歐洲的影響也是巨大的,促進(jìn)和推動(dòng)了17世紀(jì)追求東方情調(diào)的“羅可可”藝術(shù)的誕生。陶瓷藝術(shù)作為當(dāng)時(shí)中國(guó)文化藝術(shù)的主流和原創(chuàng)性洋洋灑灑,使中國(guó)走向了世界,更使得世界認(rèn)識(shí)和了解了中國(guó)文化。

四、結(jié)論

青銅器和陶瓷都是金、木、水、火、土的有機(jī)組合并通過其中最關(guān)鍵的媒介——火的練就,而呈現(xiàn)出各自獨(dú)特的材質(zhì)感和文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)。它們?cè)跉v史長(zhǎng)河逐步的推演中,共生與互動(dòng)、傳承與轉(zhuǎn)換、此消彼長(zhǎng),不斷地豐富自身的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài),是兩根撐起五千年中華文明的頂梁柱。青銅器和陶瓷是中國(guó)文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)最具代表性的物質(zhì)載體和文明精神的結(jié)晶體,它們承載著深厚的文化內(nèi)涵,流淌著明晰的文脈,具有濃厚的藝術(shù)魅力和強(qiáng)烈的感染力及時(shí)代精神。青銅時(shí)代把中國(guó)文化藝術(shù)推進(jìn)到高峰,春秋戰(zhàn)國(guó)的百家爭(zhēng)鳴中產(chǎn)生了老子和孔子的道家和儒家思想,形成了中國(guó)特有的出世與入世的哲學(xué),是幾千年來(lái)注入到中國(guó)人血脈中的宇宙觀和人生觀,中國(guó)文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)從原始到理性的演化,從“神”到“禮”到“人”的回歸,顯出一種宇宙觀,也是一種天人關(guān)系。中華文明的精神內(nèi)核及框架在青銅時(shí)代已經(jīng)聚集和搭建完成。

篇2

1.在教學(xué)時(shí),教師要注意英漢語(yǔ)中具有豐富文化內(nèi)涵的詞匯

如動(dòng)植物詞匯、顏色詞匯、地名詞匯、數(shù)字習(xí)語(yǔ)等通過對(duì)比分析英漢部分詞匯的文化內(nèi)涵,展示中西方文化差異西方人重理性和邏輯思維,漢民族重悟性和辯證思維,通過讓學(xué)生了解這種思維習(xí)慣上的文化差異。體會(huì)其對(duì)語(yǔ)言表達(dá)方式的影響 進(jìn)而學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法,減少中國(guó)式英語(yǔ)的錯(cuò)誤 ,在傳遞文化知識(shí)的同時(shí),教師還要培養(yǎng)學(xué)生用英語(yǔ)思維的習(xí)慣,以英語(yǔ)思維模式學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ) 排除母語(yǔ)文化和母語(yǔ)思維的干擾,按西方人的觀念和思維進(jìn)行有效的交際,教師要培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的閱讀興趣。鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生廣泛收集適合自己的閱讀材料,如各類報(bào)刊,文摘 雜志等,通過大量的閱讀 學(xué)生可以開闊眼界,有助于在深層次上對(duì)異域文化有所了解,教師可以借助此幻燈片,娛樂電影等,增加學(xué)生對(duì)文化差異的敏感度 。

2.英語(yǔ)教學(xué)應(yīng)注意中西方文化差異比較提高英語(yǔ)教學(xué)效果

交際能力不但包括對(duì)語(yǔ)言形式的掌握 而且包括對(duì)語(yǔ)言使用社會(huì)規(guī)則的了解和熟識(shí) ,英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中教師應(yīng)遵循語(yǔ)言分析和文化比較相結(jié)合的原則 注意對(duì)比中西方之間的文化差異 要讓學(xué)生認(rèn)識(shí)到不同的語(yǔ)言不但在語(yǔ)音、詞匯、語(yǔ)法等方面存在著差異,而且在交際規(guī)則上有很大的差異,因此學(xué)英語(yǔ)的學(xué)生不但要了解而且要深入學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)國(guó)家的歷史,文化傳統(tǒng) 風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣 交際規(guī)則,生活方式等諸多方面的知識(shí),與此同時(shí) 教師還必須不斷引導(dǎo)學(xué)生加強(qiáng)對(duì)本國(guó)文化的學(xué)習(xí)。使他們逐步提高對(duì)本國(guó)文化的認(rèn)識(shí),在比較中西方文化的基礎(chǔ)上把握二者之間的差異,從英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中如何培養(yǎng)跨文化交際能力,避免文化沖突從以上的分析可以看出,在我們與西方的交往過程中,確實(shí)存在著很多文化方面的沖突,直接影響到了跨文化交往的效果,為了改變這一狀況,我們極有必要在實(shí)際教學(xué)中培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的跨文化交際能力,具體措施如下:

2.1 授課教師要轉(zhuǎn)變觀念在我國(guó)目前的教學(xué)體系

外語(yǔ)教學(xué)多半只在課堂上進(jìn)行,教師起著絕對(duì)的主導(dǎo)作用。如果教師只把重點(diǎn)放在語(yǔ)法和詞匯教學(xué)上,學(xué)生就不可能學(xué)會(huì)語(yǔ)言的實(shí)際運(yùn)用,也無(wú)法獲得跨文化交際的能力。因此,授課的教師必須要轉(zhuǎn)變自己的觀念,切實(shí)認(rèn)識(shí)到文化沖突的危害性和培養(yǎng)學(xué)生跨文化交際能力的重要性。同時(shí),教師還要加強(qiáng)學(xué)習(xí),提高自身的綜合文化素質(zhì),只有這樣,才能全面把握英語(yǔ)文化知識(shí)教育的量與度,以及教學(xué)的具體步驟和方法,以達(dá)到預(yù)期的教學(xué)目的。

2.2 改進(jìn)現(xiàn)有的教學(xué)方法一直以來(lái)

小學(xué)的英語(yǔ)教學(xué)側(cè)重點(diǎn)都放在了語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的傳授上,而忽略了跨文化交際能力的培養(yǎng)。為了改變這種情況,我們必須改進(jìn)教學(xué)方法,在質(zhì)和量?jī)蓚€(gè)方面對(duì)課堂教學(xué)中的文化教學(xué)加以控制,并充分利用現(xiàn)代化的教學(xué)手段來(lái)調(diào)動(dòng)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)積極性。此外還可以舉辦一些專題講座,以滿足學(xué)生的求知欲望,培養(yǎng)出具有較高跨文化交際能力的人才。但是值得注意的是,在改進(jìn)教學(xué)方法時(shí),一定要使新的內(nèi)容與學(xué)生所學(xué)的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)緊密聯(lián)系,并與語(yǔ)言交際實(shí)踐緊密結(jié)合。

篇3

摘要:

美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)是美國(guó)主流文學(xué)的重要組成部分之一,當(dāng)前美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作品中,包含兩種不同的發(fā)展趨勢(shì):一種趨勢(shì)是美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)正在逐步實(shí)現(xiàn)中、美文化的融合,在傳承中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化的基礎(chǔ)上,汲取現(xiàn)代美國(guó)文化的精髓,實(shí)現(xiàn)兩種文化的兼容并蓄;另一種趨勢(shì)是疏離中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化,在進(jìn)一步割裂傳統(tǒng)文化的基礎(chǔ)上,撇清自身和中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化的關(guān)系。

關(guān)鍵詞:

美國(guó)華裔文學(xué);中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化;差異性

美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)是華裔美國(guó)人創(chuàng)作出來(lái)的文學(xué)作品,在對(duì)美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)研究過程中,有兩個(gè)主要的區(qū)域要進(jìn)行定義和規(guī)范。首先,當(dāng)前的所有美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)都是使用英文來(lái)進(jìn)行創(chuàng)作的,而與中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化有著更為緊密聯(lián)系的華人文學(xué)則是使用漢語(yǔ)來(lái)創(chuàng)作的。因此,將美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)和華人文學(xué)同等定義是不對(duì)的,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)和傳統(tǒng)文化的隔離度是相對(duì)較高的;其次,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)是那些已經(jīng)有了美國(guó)國(guó)籍,抑或是在美國(guó)出生的華人的后裔創(chuàng)作的,從這個(gè)角度來(lái)看,創(chuàng)作美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)的人都已經(jīng)在美國(guó)的生活環(huán)境下生活了很長(zhǎng)時(shí)間。眾所周知,美國(guó)是世界文化的大熔爐,這些美裔華人都受到了美國(guó)文化的深刻影響,這些人所創(chuàng)作的文化作品都和美國(guó)現(xiàn)代文化充分結(jié)合在了一起,從這個(gè)角度來(lái)看,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)和美國(guó)文學(xué)的聯(lián)系相比較于和中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化的聯(lián)系還要相對(duì)緊密一些。

一、美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)起源于中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化

通過對(duì)相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)資料的查詢,可以發(fā)現(xiàn),從美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)的發(fā)展歷史來(lái)看,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)在發(fā)展的初始階段,出于自身的“根源”,對(duì)中國(guó)的傳統(tǒng)文化十分癡迷,但是,隨著美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)的發(fā)展,由于和美國(guó)現(xiàn)代文化的融合,逐步產(chǎn)生了對(duì)于中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文學(xué)的隔閡。[1]與此同時(shí),隨著全球化進(jìn)程的推進(jìn),美國(guó)文化和中國(guó)文化也產(chǎn)生了融合。從“追根溯源”的角度分析,可以看出,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)所“傳承”的中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化具有五千年光輝燦爛的中華文明的積淀。中國(guó)的傳統(tǒng)文化是對(duì)中國(guó)五千年歷史的道德觀、價(jià)值觀的總結(jié),這些優(yōu)秀的文化也是對(duì)中國(guó)人傳統(tǒng)的思維方式以及生活習(xí)俗的總結(jié)歸納。因此,作為中華民族的后裔,對(duì)于這些優(yōu)秀的傳統(tǒng)文化,都有保持這些傳統(tǒng)的歷史責(zé)任感。因此,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作為中華炎黃子孫所創(chuàng)設(shè)的文化,也和中國(guó)的傳統(tǒng)文化有著密切的聯(lián)系,包含著中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化和人文意識(shí)的傳承,這也表明了,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)創(chuàng)設(shè)的初始階段,其和中國(guó)的傳統(tǒng)文化有著割不斷的歷史文化淵源。在美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)發(fā)展的初始階段,一些創(chuàng)作者大都是來(lái)自中國(guó)的“佼佼者”,這些人都有著十分深厚的理論知識(shí)功底。與此同時(shí),這些人剛剛離開自己的國(guó)家,面對(duì)著和傳統(tǒng)的中華文明有著隔閡的美國(guó)文化,這些人在最初的階段都很不適應(yīng),他們心中的“傳統(tǒng)文化”和“美國(guó)文化”有著一定的差距。在這樣的背景下,這些優(yōu)秀的作家都力求在保證自身傳統(tǒng)文化的涵養(yǎng)下,盡可能地實(shí)現(xiàn)中國(guó)文化和美國(guó)文化的融合。例如:美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)的代表性人物黎錦揚(yáng)在進(jìn)行《花鼓歌》的創(chuàng)作過程中,就結(jié)合了自身的經(jīng)歷,以中國(guó)的傳統(tǒng)文化為基礎(chǔ),在作品中成功地創(chuàng)作了美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)的典型形象—王老爺?shù)膬鹤油跞?,這個(gè)人物就是中西文化結(jié)合的典型代表。在該作品中,主人公王三從自己小的時(shí)候便開始接受美國(guó)文化教育,在這樣的生活發(fā)展背景下,主人公在13歲時(shí)已經(jīng)完全融入美國(guó)社會(huì)。由于受到美國(guó)文化的影響,主人公幾乎忘記了中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化。但是,主人公的父親還不想讓主人公“忘根”,嚴(yán)格要求他學(xué)習(xí)中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化。可想而知,主人公對(duì)于和自己生活“格格不入”的中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化自然是絲毫不感興趣,甚至對(duì)父親抱怨說“對(duì)那些廢話一竅不通”,其深深地反映了美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)對(duì)于融合中西文化的無(wú)力感,僅僅憑借個(gè)人的一腔熱血,是無(wú)法在根源上解決兩種文化之間的差異問題的。[2]隨著時(shí)代的發(fā)展,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)逐步地從初始階段走向了轉(zhuǎn)折階段。在這一發(fā)展的歷史時(shí)期,不得不提的問題就是“種族歧視”問題。美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)的創(chuàng)作者們開始對(duì)自己的身份產(chǎn)生迷茫,他們?cè)谶@一階段開始認(rèn)為“中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化”給他們的發(fā)展帶來(lái)了限制,甚至想完全拋棄中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化,以便于自身完全投入到美國(guó)社會(huì)的主流文化之中。這一文化現(xiàn)象也在這一歷史階段的美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作品中得到印證。從這一段歷史的發(fā)展來(lái)看,以湯婷婷和譚恩美為代表的新一代美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作者,對(duì)于融入美國(guó)主流文化的意愿也越來(lái)越強(qiáng)烈。但是,隨著民族意識(shí)的覺醒,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)的創(chuàng)作者深刻感受到了“根”和“民族凝聚力”的作用,這些作者開始重新定位自身對(duì)于中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化的理解。例如:在當(dāng)代著名的美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作品《喜福會(huì)》中,就傳達(dá)出了新一代的創(chuàng)作者對(duì)于美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)的認(rèn)知:不去逃避自己的文化起源,充分地融合自身的民族文化屬性,并在結(jié)合美國(guó)文化的發(fā)展特點(diǎn)的基礎(chǔ)上,讓自己更好地和美國(guó)的主流文化進(jìn)行融合。[3]在這種發(fā)展背景下,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)逐漸進(jìn)入發(fā)展的巔峰階段,在這一階段,世界上的各種文化實(shí)現(xiàn)了高度融合。與此同時(shí),隨著中國(guó)世界地位的提升,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作家對(duì)于自己的出身問題已經(jīng)不再苦惱。美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作家更能夠利用詼諧、幽默、反諷的作品回應(yīng)“歧視問題”。如《典型美國(guó)人》就從美國(guó)發(fā)展的歷史階段,更加強(qiáng)調(diào)中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化和美國(guó)主流文化的融合。這一時(shí)期的作品對(duì)于美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)的發(fā)展也有著非常有效的促進(jìn)作用。

二、美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)與中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化的差異性

(一)美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)與中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化差異性的具體表現(xiàn)

1.美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)存在對(duì)中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化的誤讀

美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作家的典型代表人物湯婷婷在進(jìn)行《女勇士》的創(chuàng)作過程中,使用了美國(guó)式的視角,同時(shí)又受到了嚴(yán)重的“東方主義”思想的影響,在該作品中描繪的中國(guó)形象是文化腐朽,思想愚昧的。與此同時(shí),在她的筆下中國(guó)還是“養(yǎng)閨女還不如喂只鳥”的中國(guó),在這樣的筆觸下,這些美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)不僅僅對(duì)中國(guó)進(jìn)行了詆毀,還對(duì)中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化進(jìn)行了抹黑。[5]與此同時(shí),由于這些美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)是美國(guó)的華裔創(chuàng)作的,很容易讓美國(guó)人錯(cuò)誤認(rèn)為這些美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)描述的就是真實(shí)的,對(duì)中國(guó)的形象造成了嚴(yán)重的詆毀。馬勝美曾對(duì)于美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)評(píng)價(jià)道:“某些美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作品,為了達(dá)到自己不可告人的目的,有意識(shí)地歪曲中國(guó)文化?!保?]極為帶有偏見地詆毀中國(guó)的形象,為了充分地迎合美國(guó)白人的主流文化,從而導(dǎo)致中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化和西方文化的隔閡。從這些美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作品來(lái)看,中國(guó)的傳統(tǒng)文化和美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)之間產(chǎn)生的隔閡是和某些帶有偏見的美國(guó)華裔作家分不開的。

2.美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)的生存土壤不同于傳統(tǒng)中國(guó)文化

從根源來(lái)分析,這種隔閡的產(chǎn)生是和這些美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作家的生活狀態(tài)分不開的。雖然他們有著中華民族的血統(tǒng),但是,他們的上一輩就已經(jīng)生活在美國(guó)社會(huì),這些人從小就接受了美國(guó)文化的熏陶,所接受的教育也都是美式教育,這些人只是認(rèn)識(shí)到了自己對(duì)于“美國(guó)人”這一名詞的認(rèn)同,對(duì)于自身的民族的歷史也就忽略了。因此,這些人所創(chuàng)作的文學(xué)作品都只是他們片面的“道聽途書”后所創(chuàng)作的,這些文化作品也往往會(huì)是“無(wú)根之萍”。如在知名美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作家譚恩美的成名作《喜福會(huì)》中,就對(duì)這一文化的割裂情況進(jìn)行了探索分析。在該小說之中,對(duì)四位華人移民母親和她們的女兒之間的關(guān)系進(jìn)行了研究分析,充分展現(xiàn)出了這些母女之間的關(guān)系:母親雖然有著教育女兒“尋找中國(guó)文化淵源”的思想意識(shí),但是,又希望自己的女兒能夠充分地繼續(xù)自己的“美國(guó)夢(mèng)”,展現(xiàn)了這一代美國(guó)華裔在成長(zhǎng)過程中的矛盾,從此也看出了美國(guó)人成長(zhǎng)過程中所經(jīng)歷的矛盾之痛。

(二)美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)與中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化差異根源因素探析

從美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)和中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化產(chǎn)生的差異性角度來(lái)看,這一問題的產(chǎn)生有著較深的理論背景。以薩義德的“東方主義理論”為代表的理論,是進(jìn)行美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)和傳統(tǒng)文化差異研究的重要參考性理論。具體來(lái)說,這一理論是建立在“東方”與“西方”的本體論的基礎(chǔ)上完成的[4],其所定義的中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化和美國(guó)主流文化的關(guān)系,錯(cuò)誤地認(rèn)為美國(guó)文化應(yīng)該處于“控制”東方文化的定位,從這一角度分析,彰顯了美國(guó)文化統(tǒng)治世界文化的野心。也正是因?yàn)椤皷|方主義理論”的影響,很多的美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)所創(chuàng)作出來(lái)的文學(xué)作品也展現(xiàn)出了對(duì)于中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化的背離。美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作者對(duì)于美國(guó)主流文化充滿了向往,出現(xiàn)了擺脫“中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化”的思想傾向。因此,這些美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)作者往往會(huì)在文學(xué)作品創(chuàng)作的過程中使用“美國(guó)式”的眼光來(lái)審查“中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化”,從而使美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)和中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化之間產(chǎn)生了隔閡。綜合起來(lái)看,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)在發(fā)展的歷程中,由于受社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展變遷的影響,在美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)的發(fā)展過程中和中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化之間的存在差異,這些差異就導(dǎo)致了隔閡和問題的產(chǎn)生。但是,隨著全球化進(jìn)程的加快,文化融合進(jìn)程也在加快,這也是美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)發(fā)展的未來(lái)趨勢(shì)。

三、結(jié)語(yǔ)

綜上所述,由于歷史與現(xiàn)實(shí)等各種原因,各國(guó)文化之間產(chǎn)生差異性也是必然。但是隨著全球化進(jìn)程的加快,文化的融合也是必然趨勢(shì),人類社會(huì)的發(fā)展也是在這樣的差異和融合之間發(fā)生的。中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化和美國(guó)文化之間的關(guān)系,正逐步地從美國(guó)文化的“文化施動(dòng)者”進(jìn)行轉(zhuǎn)變,進(jìn)而在后續(xù)的發(fā)展過程中,產(chǎn)生更多的文化沖突以及融合。但是,隨著時(shí)代的發(fā)展,文化之間的融合趨勢(shì)也越來(lái)越明顯,因此,美國(guó)華裔文學(xué)和中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化之間的融合也是未來(lái)的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)。

參考文獻(xiàn):

[1]張?chǎng)畯恼J(rèn)同、反認(rèn)同再到否定的認(rèn)同———華裔美國(guó)文學(xué)中文化身份定位的變遷[J].湖南城市學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào),2008(2):87-90.

[2]陳為為.趙健秀長(zhǎng)篇小說中的政治情結(jié)[J].世界文學(xué)評(píng)論,2007(2):141-144.

[3]李貴蒼.趙健秀的《杜老鴨》:在陽(yáng)剛之氣和文化英雄主義語(yǔ)境中探尋華裔的文化認(rèn)同[J].華文文學(xué),2006(3):41-52.

[4]劉熠.文化身份的探尋與建構(gòu)———從水仙花、黃玉雪、湯亭亭到譚恩美[J].西南大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)(人文社會(huì)科學(xué)版),2006(2):185-188.

[5]蒲若茜.論《家鄉(xiāng)》與《唐老鴨》中的“父與子”母題[J].當(dāng)代外國(guó)文學(xué),2006(1):50-57.

篇4

關(guān)鍵詞 筷子 叉子 文化差異

中圖分類號(hào):G122 文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼:A

1 群體認(rèn)同與個(gè)人本位

從不同的餐桌文化看到了中國(guó)文化的思想內(nèi)核是“群體意識(shí)”,而西方文化的思想內(nèi)核則是“個(gè)體意識(shí)”。中國(guó)的社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)以家庭為基礎(chǔ)單元,中國(guó)人的社會(huì)存在首先依存于以血緣關(guān)系為紐帶的家庭和宗族, 再延伸至家國(guó)社稷。人的社會(huì)關(guān)系表現(xiàn)為個(gè)人、家庭、國(guó)家融為一體,文化上兼收并蓄,價(jià)值觀以國(guó)家集體利益為重,必要時(shí)不惜犧牲個(gè)人利益或局部利益,保護(hù)全體利益。“人之生不能無(wú)群,群而無(wú)分則爭(zhēng),爭(zhēng)則亂,亂則窮矣?!敝袊?guó)人喜歡聚餐共食,在中國(guó)人心目中,“獨(dú)食難肥,共食才能汲取營(yíng)養(yǎng);獨(dú)食無(wú)味,共食才會(huì)其樂無(wú)窮?!蹦康氖菫榱思訌?qiáng)人情往來(lái),群體聯(lián)系。中餐桌上的熱鬧氣氛與西餐的雅靜形成了鮮明的反差。主人宴請(qǐng)客人往往為了表現(xiàn)熱情好客,鋪張排場(chǎng),在餐桌上還頻頻給客人布菜夾菜??腿藗円簧献?,便滔滔不絕,談天說地,勸酒敬煙,甚至吆喝劃拳,現(xiàn)階段的這種風(fēng)潮有悖于傳統(tǒng)儒家文化“食不語(yǔ),寢不言”的教誨,已遠(yuǎn)超出文明的界限。

比較正式的宴席的座次安排, 也體現(xiàn)出這種不同的文化認(rèn)同。傳統(tǒng)的中餐宴席使用八仙桌,對(duì)門為上,兩邊為偏座。年長(zhǎng)者、主賓或地位高的人坐上座,男女主人或陪客者坐下座,其余客人按順序坐偏座?,F(xiàn)代宴席,主要用圓桌及方桌, 但往往男性與女性分桌, 女性安排在次桌或次要座位。若家中請(qǐng)客,女主人往往在廚房和餐廳之間穿梭忙碌,待所有菜品上桌才就座陪客。而西餐宴會(huì)中, 主角是女主人,一般使用長(zhǎng)形或馬蹄形餐桌,男女主人分坐兩端,然后按男女主賓和一般客人的次序安排座位,即男女穿插安排,以女主人的座位為準(zhǔn),主賓坐在女主人的右上方,主賓夫人坐在男主人的右上方,以右為尊,左為次。入座方式為從左側(cè)入座,男士應(yīng)拖拉餐椅,協(xié)助女士入座,以顯示女士?jī)?yōu)先的紳士風(fēng)度。若家庭宴請(qǐng),男女主人都應(yīng)始終陪同,客人還應(yīng)送瓶葡萄酒或鮮花,或?yàn)榕魅藴?zhǔn)備紀(jì)念品等小禮物,這也是社交場(chǎng)合的起碼禮節(jié)。

2 面子觀念

在西方社會(huì)中也有面子觀念,Brown 和Levinson 于1978 年提出了“面子保全論”,指出禮貌就是“典型人”為滿足面子需求所采取的各種理。他們將面子分為正面面(positive face)和負(fù)面面子(negative face)。正面面子是指每個(gè)社會(huì)成員希望自己的愿望受人順從, 他的自我形象被人欣賞和贊許??滟潓?duì)方就是西方人典型的生活習(xí)慣和交際方式,不管多么簡(jiǎn)單的菜肴,都會(huì)得到客人的贊美。如果每道菜都吃完,會(huì)令主人很高興,說明自己的心意和努力得到客人的肯定。餐后告別,客人們總要表示“have a nice dinner”(吃得很高興)。而負(fù)面面子是與正面相對(duì)而言,指的是社會(huì)成員希望其行動(dòng)不被人干涉, 即具有行動(dòng)自由和自主決定的自由, 凡是有違這種自由愿望的言行就會(huì)被認(rèn)為對(duì)他人負(fù)面面子的侵犯。與之相應(yīng),在西方更受歡迎的還有自助餐和雞尾酒會(huì),形式更加自在隨意,按照個(gè)人的喜好和食量自由選擇,便于相互聯(lián)絡(luò)與交往。另外邀請(qǐng)他人外出用餐,往往是AA 制,各人付各自的帳,或平分賬單,若為人付賬需事先說明。

由于中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)社會(huì)是以家族為核心的熟人社會(huì),即人情社會(huì),個(gè)人的價(jià)值取決于家族和他人的評(píng)價(jià)。在這種特定語(yǔ)境中,人們往往十分關(guān)注自己在他人心中的地位, 以尋求和捍衛(wèi)自己的優(yōu)勢(shì),保持體面和尊嚴(yán)。在家族和交際圈子中,人們習(xí)慣用面子來(lái)解釋和調(diào)節(jié)社會(huì)關(guān)系和行為,誰(shuí)的面子大,誰(shuí)的話語(yǔ)權(quán)就大,在他人心目中的地位也高。因此人們熱衷于請(qǐng)客和被請(qǐng),誰(shuí)的應(yīng)酬多,宴請(qǐng)的檔次高,客人的級(jí)別高,誰(shuí)就“有面子”,在人際交往中,也樂于互相“給面子”。比如餐桌上幾乎每宴必有的敬酒環(huán)節(jié), 敬酒者和被敬者競(jìng)相表演的一套套說辭,言不由衷,醉翁之意不在酒,全在于面子。餐后爭(zhēng)先付款買單,即使無(wú)意出錢,彼此心照不宣,也要做一番“爭(zhēng)面子“的表現(xiàn)。

3 總結(jié)

有些時(shí)候不同的禮儀是不同文化之間產(chǎn)生誤解, 導(dǎo)致跨文化交際失敗的一個(gè)重要的原因, 而中西方文化的差異又是造成禮儀不同的主要原因。研究和理解深藏在禮儀背后的文化因素, 能使我們更好地把握交際的原則和習(xí)慣技巧。餐桌禮儀作為禮儀中的一種,是我們與西方人交往時(shí)難以避免的,因此,對(duì)餐桌禮儀的研究不能只分析東西方差異的表層,需要探索其背后的文化,這樣才能做到“知其然,知其所以然”,以客觀寬容的態(tài)度對(duì)待異國(guó)文化,減少因文化差異所造成的交際障礙,避免產(chǎn)生誤解與沖突。

參考文獻(xiàn)

篇5

關(guān)鍵詞: 漢英文化差異 翻譯策略 優(yōu)化利用

一、漢英文化差異不容忽視

本文根據(jù)《現(xiàn)代漢語(yǔ)詞典》中對(duì)“文化”一詞的定義第一條,將“文化”定義為:文化是人類社會(huì)歷史發(fā)展過程中所創(chuàng)造的物質(zhì)財(cái)富和精神財(cái)富的總和。文化包含人類創(chuàng)造的一切財(cái)富,語(yǔ)言是人類最杰出的創(chuàng)造物之一。地理位置、社會(huì)制度、歷史變革、思維方式等的不同,必然引起兩個(gè)民族之間文化的差異,這種差異主要表現(xiàn)在社會(huì)習(xí)俗、行為方式及有情感的語(yǔ)言表達(dá)方式上,而語(yǔ)言作為文化的載體和不可分割的組成部分,必然會(huì)打上不同文化的烙印。漢語(yǔ)中有“三生有幸”“一塵不染”等反映佛教觀念的詞匯,“改革開放”“一國(guó)兩制”等反映政策的詞匯;英語(yǔ)中也有“Sword of Damocles”(達(dá)摩克利斯之劍)等反映歷史的詞匯??梢姡g不僅是一種語(yǔ)言的交換,而且是一種文化的對(duì)接。文化的共性使這種對(duì)接成為可能,同時(shí)文化的個(gè)性決定其不可能完美。文化的個(gè)性形成文化差異的鴻溝,譯者的使命就是架設(shè)跨越鴻溝的橋梁。[1]因而,如何優(yōu)化自己的翻譯策略便成了譯者要面對(duì)的一個(gè)問題。

二、兩種翻譯策略及之間的關(guān)系

著名的文學(xué)家魯迅先生就明確地提出了歸化與異化的問題:“動(dòng)筆之前,就先得解決一個(gè)問題,竭力使它歸化,還是盡量保存洋氣呢?”魯迅這里的所謂“洋氣”可以理解為我們所說的“異化”。所謂歸化,就是主張譯文應(yīng)以源語(yǔ)或原文作者為歸宿;異化,則是認(rèn)為譯文應(yīng)以目的語(yǔ)或譯文讀者為歸宿。[2]當(dāng)然,關(guān)于歸化與異化之爭(zhēng)可謂古今中外皆源遠(yuǎn)流長(zhǎng)。在中國(guó),古有佛經(jīng)翻譯的“文質(zhì)之爭(zhēng)”,經(jīng)過二十世紀(jì)二三十年代魯迅與梁實(shí)秋之爭(zhēng),直到1987年劉英凱《歸化――翻譯的歧路》將兩者之爭(zhēng)推向;在國(guó)外,可追溯到古羅馬時(shí)期Cicero,Horace和Jerome等人所論及的word-for-word translation(字譯,即直譯的雛形)和sense-for-sense translation(意譯),十八至十九世紀(jì)德國(guó)著名翻譯家Schleiermacher有一句名言:“譯者要么盡量不打擾原作者而讓讀者靠近作者,要么盡量不打擾讀者而讓作者靠近讀者?!保?]二十世紀(jì)七十年代,當(dāng)文論和文學(xué)翻譯領(lǐng)域出現(xiàn)文化轉(zhuǎn)向時(shí),歸化和異化之爭(zhēng)才正式取代直譯和意譯之爭(zhēng),逐漸成為當(dāng)今翻譯理論的熱門話題之一。[4]無(wú)論是歸化派還是異化派,他們都有關(guān)于翻譯目的、文本類型、作者意圖、讀者接受等方面的考慮。隨著時(shí)代的進(jìn)步,世界文化交流的頻繁,我認(rèn)為讀者們對(duì)異域知識(shí)的了解越來(lái)越多,尋求異域知識(shí)的好奇心也被不斷刺激,各種異域的表達(dá)不斷地被引進(jìn)與接受,因而從長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)角度來(lái)說異化是大勢(shì)所趨,然而,歸化與異化目前看來(lái)仍是一個(gè)辯證的統(tǒng)一體。沒有完全歸化的譯文,也沒有完全異化的譯文。

三、歸化與異化翻譯策略的優(yōu)化

上文提到,歸化與異化是辯證統(tǒng)一的關(guān)系,但由于兩種策略各有所長(zhǎng),如何優(yōu)化翻譯策略就變得極其重要,以下結(jié)合翻譯實(shí)例來(lái)分析兩種策略的優(yōu)化利用。

例如:至于才子佳人等書……更有一種風(fēng)雨筆墨……(曹雪芹,《紅樓夢(mèng)》)

As for books of the beauty-and-talented type ...Even worse are those writers of the breeze-and-moonlight school.(楊憲益、戴乃迭譯)

And the “boudoir romance” ... Still worse is the “erotic novel” ...(David Hawkes)

從翻譯的類型來(lái)看,原文中“風(fēng)月”二字本意指風(fēng)清月明,在詩(shī)詞歌賦中常用以比喻男歡女愛,是一個(gè)極富中國(guó)文化韻味的詞語(yǔ),楊戴采用異化的翻譯策略向讀者傳遞出原文本的文化內(nèi)涵。從這一點(diǎn)看,霍氏的歸化譯文略顯單薄。通常情況下,以介紹源語(yǔ)文化為目的的哲學(xué)著作、歷史、典故、民間故事等類型的翻譯,異化策略用得較多,因?yàn)檫@類翻譯的目的就是要把源語(yǔ)文化介紹給目的語(yǔ)的讀者,使其體會(huì)、了解源語(yǔ)文化。而對(duì)于一些實(shí)用性文體的文章,如新聞報(bào)道、廣告、宣傳資料、通知等的翻譯,一般可遵循以目的語(yǔ)文化為歸宿,較多地采用歸化策略,以達(dá)到通俗易懂、表達(dá)清晰的效果。如關(guān)于著名電影“Waterloo Bridge”的歸化翻譯《魂斷藍(lán)橋》運(yùn)用得就恰到好處,譯者翻譯時(shí)避免了Waterloo(滑鐵盧)給人以介紹戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的誤導(dǎo),而是聯(lián)系影片的愛情主題,譯成了有中國(guó)文化特色的“藍(lán)橋”,使中國(guó)觀眾聞聯(lián)想起典故,表達(dá)效果極佳。[5]從翻譯的目的和讀者的接受來(lái)看,楊氏采用異化策略將文化信息傳達(dá)給讀者,弘揚(yáng)中國(guó)文化的同時(shí)希望對(duì)中國(guó)文化有一定基礎(chǔ)的目的語(yǔ)人群能獲得更多的文化知識(shí),包括對(duì)“風(fēng)月”這一意象的把握;而霍氏的譯文顯然更針對(duì)中國(guó)文化了解甚少的人群。我們可以此來(lái)考察“五四”期間異化翻譯發(fā)揮的作用。魯迅極主張“直譯”、“硬譯”、“寧信而不順”,借助翻譯來(lái)改造漢語(yǔ)、豐富漢語(yǔ),使?jié)h語(yǔ)更細(xì)致精密,更富有表現(xiàn)力,更具有邏輯性。異化翻譯此時(shí)在很大程度上推動(dòng)了白話文運(yùn)動(dòng)的發(fā)展,從而極大地推動(dòng)了的發(fā)展。在這里,從不同的角度分析可見歸化與異化的翻譯策略各有千秋,如何使它們的作用在文章中得以優(yōu)化則需要考慮以上因素,在全面分析后方可知曉。

四、結(jié)語(yǔ)

歸化與異化的爭(zhēng)執(zhí)從未間斷,學(xué)者的爭(zhēng)執(zhí)業(yè)已從語(yǔ)言層面上升至文化層面。目前看來(lái)二者是在處理文化差異時(shí)必須面對(duì)和采用的翻譯策略,歸化譯文有較高的可讀性,讀者群較為龐大,讀起來(lái)通順易懂;異化譯文可以盡可能多的傳遞文化信息,使讀者體驗(yàn)異域表達(dá)與文化風(fēng)味,它們各有所長(zhǎng),互相補(bǔ)充與完善。或許若干年后,在另一個(gè)較大的學(xué)術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)向之后,我們可以站在更高的層面上審視這兩種翻譯策略,從更多的角度探討二者的優(yōu)化利用。

參考文獻(xiàn):

[1]陳宏薇,李亞丹主編.新編漢英翻譯教程[M].上海:上海外語(yǔ)教育出版社,2004:24.

[2]郭建中.翻譯中的文化因素:異化與歸化[J].上海外國(guó)語(yǔ)大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào),1998,(2).

[3]Schleiermacher,A.On the Different Method of Translation[A].Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essay from Dryden to Derrida[C].Schulte,R.,Biguenet,J.Chicago and London:The University of Chiago Press,1992:36-54.

篇6

民族之所以得以區(qū)分,不僅是受到地域的影響,還因?yàn)槠浒l(fā)展歷史與不同。民族的形成是十分自然的過程,一個(gè)民族的人,具有較為相似的心理素質(zhì)以及心理趨向,無(wú)論是語(yǔ)言應(yīng)用還是行為舉止,都較為相似。而民族與民族之間,會(huì)在心理趨向與語(yǔ)言應(yīng)用上存在不同之處,這也是各個(gè)民族具有自身的原因。在進(jìn)行英漢翻譯工作時(shí),譯者需要關(guān)注文化差異中的信仰問題,不同的信仰,對(duì)于同樣的詞匯具有不同的理解。比如,在中國(guó),龍是權(quán)利的象征,是吉祥的象征。在中國(guó),有許多詞語(yǔ)與龍有關(guān),用具有積極意義。像龍鳳成祥,生龍活虎等。而在英語(yǔ)國(guó)家,“dragon”是邪惡與罪惡的象征。在了解中國(guó)文化的過程中,許多英美國(guó)家的無(wú)法理解中國(guó)人是龍的傳人。在翻譯時(shí),我們可以將“dragon”轉(zhuǎn)換為“tiger”,推動(dòng)文化的正常交流。

二、風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣差異,造成詞匯的涵義不同

風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣的不同,使人們對(duì)于同一詞匯的使用方法不同。中國(guó)是一個(gè)崇尚儒家文化的國(guó)家,尊老愛幼是一個(gè)人的基本品德。在生活中,我們習(xí)慣有老奶奶、老爺爺、老太太這樣的稱呼,老字在中國(guó)意味著受人尊敬。而在英美國(guó)家則不同,在他們的觀點(diǎn)中,“old”意味著他們沒有價(jià)值了,沒有生存的意義了。在進(jìn)行英漢翻譯時(shí),需要對(duì)“old”進(jìn)行合理轉(zhuǎn)換,翻譯為令以尊敬的即可。另外,在中國(guó)的日常交流中,人們經(jīng)常會(huì)提出工作、年齡、收入、婚姻等問題,大家樂于談?wù)撨@些,來(lái)增加彼此之間的熟悉度。而在英美國(guó)國(guó)家,這些都屬于個(gè)人隱私,如果你詢問,就說明你沒有禮貌。這就提醒我們每一位英漢翻譯者,需要認(rèn)識(shí)到英漢語(yǔ)言中所暗藏的思維與風(fēng)俗問題,尊重不同國(guó)家之間的風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣,將翻譯工作做準(zhǔn)做精。

三、地域環(huán)境差異,造成詞匯的涵義不同

語(yǔ)言的含義也會(huì)受到地理環(huán)境的影響,不同的區(qū)域,在同一時(shí)刻會(huì)有不同的地理現(xiàn)象。同樣的地理現(xiàn)象,其所帶來(lái)的影響是不同的。這就使得關(guān)于地理或者天氣的詞語(yǔ),會(huì)存在較大的差異。舉例來(lái)講,在中國(guó),春天會(huì)吹東風(fēng),東風(fēng)一來(lái),春天則到,萬(wàn)物復(fù)蘇,春暖花開。在我國(guó),東風(fēng)一直被應(yīng)用于大量的詩(shī)句當(dāng)中,詩(shī)人用描述東風(fēng)來(lái)表達(dá)自己對(duì)春天的熱愛之情。像“東風(fēng)夜放花千樹”等。

篇7

[Key Words] metaphor; translation; cultural differences; cultural connotations; corresponding relation

【摘 要】 近年來(lái),越來(lái)越多的學(xué)者對(duì)隱喻進(jìn)行了研究,在現(xiàn)代社會(huì)逐漸形成了一股“隱喻熱”。對(duì)隱喻的研究在國(guó)外已形成較為完整的體系,其中以George Lakeoff 和Mark Johnson的研究最具有代表性。國(guó)內(nèi)對(duì)隱喻的研究也主要受這兩個(gè)人的影響。而縱觀這些研究成果,我們不難發(fā)現(xiàn),很少有對(duì)英語(yǔ)隱喻漢譯的研究,而且大多數(shù)傳統(tǒng)的理論家認(rèn)為隱喻僅僅是一種修辭格,屬于語(yǔ)言學(xué)的范疇。但是事實(shí)上,隱喻不僅是一種語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象,也是一種文化現(xiàn)象、認(rèn)知現(xiàn)象。本論文克服了這些局限,試圖從中英文化差異的角度來(lái)研究英語(yǔ)隱喻的漢譯。整篇論文分為五個(gè)部分。第一部分是導(dǎo)入。該部分立足于認(rèn)為隱喻是一種文化和認(rèn)知現(xiàn)象這一新觀點(diǎn),闡明了從文化角度對(duì)隱喻進(jìn)行研究的意義。第二部分重點(diǎn)分析了語(yǔ)言、文化與翻譯之間的密切關(guān)系。第三部分介紹了隱喻的一些要素,如隱喻的定義,特征及分類。第四部分根據(jù)不同的英漢對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系,著重闡述了英語(yǔ)隱喻的漢譯方法。最后一部分總結(jié)了此論文的一些要點(diǎn)。

【關(guān)鍵詞】 隱喻;翻譯;文化差異;文化內(nèi)涵;對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系

1. Introduction

On seeing the title of this thesis, the reader may easily find out three key words: translation, metaphor, and cultural differences. In the view of most people, metaphor belongs to the category of language, but as we know that language has very close connection with translation and culture. As Professor Wang Zuoliang, a master of translation, pointed out, translation involves language as well as culture.[1] Translation is not merely a task of replacing one language with another, but also needs to have a good command of the two different cultures represented by the two different languages. When we concentrate on translation studies, we should attach great importance to both language and culture.

Over the past two decades, translation studies have assumed a sound momentum of advancement, and culture, as an indispensable factor in translation, becomes increasingly important. Through thorough analysis, we can find that there are two tendencies in today’s development of translation studies: firstly, translation studies have been more and more integrated with communication theories; secondly, the focus of translation has been shifted from linguistic transfer to cultural transfer. Based on these two tendencies, many scholars engaged in translation studies agree with the idea that translation is an act of intercultural communication.

Since translation involves two languages and two cultures, and in different cultural backgrounds, there are different languages. Both Chinese and English are great peoples with long history and rich cultural resources, and naturally colorful languages. Metaphor, as a category of language, is a common linguistic phenomenon in both Chinese and English, but metaphors in these two different cultural backgrounds have great differences.

Metaphor doesn’t exist on the birth of human. With the advancement of human civilization, the linguistic competence of our ancestors had been greatly strengthened. They gradually acquired the capability to express their ideas through association. In this way, metaphor——one of the most important means of expression in human language came into being. As the foundation of mankind’s conceptual system, metaphor is the common feature of human language. If there is no metaphor in our language, it will be very hard for us to clearly and vividly express our ideas, let along smooth and successful communication.[2] Traditional theorists viewed metaphor simply as an important stylistic device of the poetic imagination and rhetorical flourish, moreover a matter of words rather than thought or action, but in fact, “metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but also in thought and action.”[3] Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. Just as I.A.Richards contends, “all language and thought are metaphorical, and metaphor is the ‘omnipresent principle of language’.”[4]

From the importance of metaphor, we can see that translation of metaphor has great significance to the cultural translation. Peter Newmark has stated in Approaches to Translation that metaphor is at the center of all problems of translation theory, semantics and linguistics.[5] Especially in English, there are a great number of metaphors. It had been said that three-quarters of the English language consists of metaphors. In order to master English and successfully complete the task of translation from English into Chinese, successful translation of English metaphor is essential. Therefore, in this paper, the author attempts to discuss the problem of translation of metaphor from English into Chinese from the cultural perspective in detail.

As far as translation theory is concerned, this paper adopts Eugene A.Nida’s functional theory, i.e. “Functional Equivalence”: the response of the receptors to the translated message=the response of the original receptors to the message when it was given in its original setting.[6]From this point, we know that for truly successful translation, biculturalism is as important as bilingualism, and even more important at times.

2. Culture and translation

2.1 Culture

“What is culture?” is a very difficult question, because culture is such a complex conception and an enormous subject that it is extremely hard for people to give an exact definition to it. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture was formulated by the English anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor in Primitive Cultures (1871). “He defined culture as ‘a(chǎn) complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’.”[7]

Although culture is very complicated, we can roughly classify it into three categories in scope: (a) material culture which refers to all the products of manufacture;(b) instituted culture which refers to social system, religious system, ritual system, educated system and kinship system etc;(c) mental culture which refers to people’s mentalities and behaviors, their beliefs, perceptions, concepts of value, thought patterns etc,

In the view of most anthropologists, culture possesses the following features: (a) culture is socially acquired instead of biologically transmitted; (b) culture is shared among the members of a community instead of being unique to an inpidual; (c) culture is symbolic. Language is the most typical symbolic system within culture; (d) culture is integrated. Each aspect of culture is tied in with the other aspects.[8]

Since language symbolizes and reflects culture, language communication is actually a kind of cultural communication and the communication between different languages is indeed communication between different cultures. From this perspective, the translation of language is essentially the translation of culture, and translation studies should be conducted in the context of culture. In the next section, the author is going to discuss the interrelations between language, culture and translation.

2.2 Language, culture and translation

Nobody will suspect the close interrelations between language and culture. A language may be a small but indispensable part of a culture. The relation between language and culture is mutually cause and effect. They penetrate into each other and cannot exist without each other. Culture embraces and influences language. In the process of communication, the meaning of language is usually determined by its cultural context. On the other side, language is the important constituent of culture and it is also an essential tool for the reservation, communication and reflection of culture. [9] In a sense, language carries culture, mirrors culture, spreads culture and helps develop culture. It is no exaggeration to say that language is the life blood of culture and culture is the track along which language forms and develops.

Just because of the close relation between language and culture, we have to pay attention to the cultural context when we research into language. According to linguistics, the origin of human language is always connected with the origin of human and human society. Therefore, if we need to understand certain language and the laws of its development, we must closely relate it to the history of social development of this language and to the people using it and its history. The existence of culture cannot depart with its certain cultural context.[10]

As for the relation between culture and translation, the author has mentioned above. Translation is, in essence, an act of intercultural communication, and the translation of language is the translation of culture. Nida holds that both language and culture are symbolic systems, and translation is the interaction between these two systems. Thus, in translation we should not only focus on the literal meaning of words or sentences, but also pay special attention to their cultural connotations in certain cultural context. Therefore, translation studies at least contain two types: in narrow sense it is literal translation, which aims at turning the content in one language into another; in broad sense it is cultural translation, which explores in turning the cultural connotation in one language into another cultural form.[11]

So far as now, the author has illustrated the intimate interrelations between language, culture and translation. And among the relations between inpidual constituent of linguistic system and social development, the most direct one is lexicon. It is because that lexicon is most sensitive to the development of society. And metaphor, as the minor system of lexicon,is most deeply affected by social culture. As discussed in Introduction, metaphor is the common feature of human language and the foundation of mankind’s conceptual system. So when we do translation studies, metaphor is necessarily enlisted in our consideration. Although metaphor differs greatly, the acceptance of metaphor from an alien culture is possible, because human beings all live in the Earth, and they share more or less similar living environment and similar feelings and sentiments. However, the acceptance of metaphor is usually incomplete, because it is limited by the persity of culture. As we know, different nations have different culture, and in different cultural context, metaphor is surely different. What’s more thinking itself is metaphorical and metaphorical concepts constitute people’s values and thought patterns. Therefore, how to deal with metaphor in translation is a pragmatic problem in translation studies. In the following chapter, the author is going to first introduce metaphor thoroughly.

3. Metaphor

3.1 Definition of metaphor

“The word ‘metaphor’ derives from the Greek word ‘metaphora’, which means ‘transference, carrying over’. It is a very common figure of speech in English.”[12] Metaphor, whose basic constituents are tenor, vehicle and ground, uses words to indicate something different from their literal meaning-----one thing is described in terms of another so as to suggest a likeness or analogy between them.

On the definition of metaphor, different scholars and academic works give their different opinions. Next the author is going to list some of them:

(a) A figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another. (Webster’s New World Dictionary)[13]

(b) A figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another. The basic figure in poetry. A comparison is usually implicit; whereas in simile it is explicit. (A Dictionary of Literal Terms)[14]

(c) The use of one reference to a group of things that are related in a particular way in order to discover a similar relation in another group. (I.A.Richards, 1936: 89-90, The Philosophy of Rhetoric)[15]

(d)The figure of speech in which a name or descriptive term is transferred to some object different from, but analogous to, that to which it is properly applicable; an instance of this, a metaphorical expression. (Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, 2002)

(e) A Textbook of Translation (Peter Newmark, 1988:104) defines metaphor as follows: “By metaphor, I mean any figurative expression: the transferred sense of a physical word; the personification of an abstraction; the application of a word or collocation to what it does not literally denote, i.e., to describe one thing in terms of another. All polysemous words (a ‘heavy’ heart) and most English phrasal verbs are potentially metaphorical. Metaphors may be ‘single’-viz. one- word——or ‘extended’ (a collocation, an idiom, a sentence, a proverb, an allegory, a complete imaginative text)”[16]

(f)A figure of speech in which a word or phrase that ordinarily designates one thing is used to designate another, thus making an implicit comparison, as in “a sea of troubles” or “ All the world’s a stage”(Shakespeare) (The American Heritage of the English Language, Fourth Edition,2000)[17]

(g)A figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable in order to suggest a resemblance, as in “A mighty fortress in our God”. (Random House Compact Unabridged Dictionary, Special Second Edition, 1996)[18]

Each of the above-quoted definitions points out more or less the essence of metaphor. The common feature of these definitions is that all of them think that metaphor is a figure of speech, containing an implicit comparison. Among the seven definitions of metaphor, the first is very concise; the second makes a contrast between simile and metaphor to point out the fundamental difference between these two rhetorical devices; the third points out that in metaphor, the tenor and the vehicle are related through their similarity in a particular way; the fourth is abstract for it provides no concrete examples to help the reader better understand the notion it intends to convey; the fifth seems to be the most comprehensive and the most specific of the above-quoted definitions as it includes several ways of manifestations which all belong to metaphor; the sixth is somewhat clear with two examples provided; the last one is quite similar with the first one.

But this thesis is mainly based on the view of George Lakeoff and Mark Johnson. “They claim in Metaphors We Live by, ‘…… metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action.’ They point out, ‘Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.’”[19] This point of view is very consistent with I.A.Richards’ “metaphor is omnipresent principle of language” mentioned in Introduction.

3.2 Characteristics of metaphor

From the seven definitions on metaphor above and according to our knowledge of metaphor, we may conclude that metaphor possesses at least the following four characteristics:

(a) Unlike simile, metaphor doesn’t contain such linking words as “as” and “l(fā)ike”, so the comparison is implicit rather than explicit.

(b) In a metaphor, the tenor is compared to the vehicle because they share an abstract quality, which functions as a tie connecting the two together. In other words, the tenor and the vehicle possess a similar abstract feature or quality, which serves as the basis of their comparison.

(c) The tenor and vehicle are by nature different from each other, though they possess something abstract in common on which their comparison is based.

(d) The vehicle in a metaphor creates a specific image, which is usually vivid and impressive. By comparing the tenor to the vehicle, we not only get a concrete image of the tenor but also make its typical quality or feature stand out.

To sum up, the author would rather believe that metaphor is not just a matter of language, a figure of speech, which implies a resemblance between one object and another, but a cognitive mode from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, which helps people understand the world.

So far as now, this thesis has thoroughly illustrated some major factors of metaphor. In the next part, the author will pay special attention to discuss the translation of metaphor from English to Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences between Chinese and English.

4. Translation of metaphor from English into Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences between Chinese and English

4.1 Cultural translation of metaphor

As we have discussed above, metaphor is not only a matter of words, but also a kind of cognitive mode. Thus, it is not enough to explore the translatability of metaphor only from the perspective of linguistics, but also from other perspectives. “Culture is the most important one of them in that in metaphors, the semantic ingredients restricted by context can stimulate readers to associate others, especially certain major definitional ones, which can shape an image in readers’ mind, then make the imparted information more clear and vivid.”[20] While image and culture are closely linked. Therefore, it is necessary for us to discuss the translatability of metaphor from the cultural perspective.

Whether a metaphor is “translatable” (i.e. whether literal translation could create identical dimensions), how difficult it is to translate, how it can be translated and whether it should be translated at all cannot be decided by a set of abstract rules, but must depend on the structure and function of the particular metaphor within the text concerned. The translatability of any given source language metaphor depends on two factors: one is particular cultural experiences and semantic association exploited by it; the other is the extent to which these can, or cannot, be reproduced non-anomalously in target language, depending on the degree of “overlap” in each particular case. Let’s look at an example:

(1) “Don’t be scared, chickens!” came her voice with teasing gaiety.

“別害怕,你們這些膽小如鼠的東西!”只聽得她用戲謔的口氣說道。

In this example, “chickens” should not be literally translated into “小雞” in Chinese, because in western culture, “chicken” is often used to refer to a cowardly and fearful person. Thus, “膽小如鼠” is a better translation.

4.1.1 Management of cultural factors in translating English metaphors

English metaphors contain abundant and vivid cultural connotation of the nation and strongly reflect the cultural characteristics of the nation with English as its native language. The key of successful translation of English metaphors lies in the extent to which the translator understands the cultural context and the translation of the cultural features. Thus, the translator should try to master the source and cultural context of English metaphors as much as possible, which is very necessary to exactly understand their connotations and the cultural characteristics they reflect. Then the translator can use proper methods to translate these connotations and characteristics in order to achieve the most faithful and perfect translation.

As to translation standard and approach, in foreign countries, there are Nida’s “formal correspondence” and “functional equivalence”, and C.F.Newmark’s “semantic translation” and “communicational translation”; in China, there exists “direct translation” and “indirect translation”. Although they are different standards, all of them do not conflict with each other but complement with each other. Therefore, there are many approaches to translating metaphors. While in the process of translating metaphors, which approach is the best choice? It will depend on the nature and position of metaphors in text, on the relation between metaphor and context and on the type of the text itself.

Above all, during the process of translation of metaphors, the translator should try to flexibly keep the cultural features while translating meaning. As a result of cultural similarities and differences, the target language and the source language have different corresponding relations: sometimes full-corresponding, sometimes semi-corresponding, and sometimes non-corresponding. Such a phenomenon will further affect the accuracy of translation. In fact, any translation may bring about the loss of meaning and/or image. Therefore, we should adopt different complemental methods in order to achieve what Nida called “functional equivalence”.[21]

4.1.2 Cultural connotation of metaphor

“Both Nida and Newmark classify linguistic culture into five categories:(a) ecology (b) material culture (c) social culture (d) religious culture (e) linguistic culture.”[22] It clearly tells us that: cultural information carried by all kinds of languages is certain to be different, because the ecology, material, social and religious environment which different nations own are impossible to be identical. The cultural differences directly influence the thinking mode and value orientation of human being, thus become the main reason for the differences of metaphorical concepts of the two nations. Through researches on metaphors, we can find the cultural differences between Chinese and English.

Firstly, metaphors reflect geological and natural conditions of a nation. Different nations have different geological environment and national circumstances, and this difference often finds expression in metaphors. For example (2), when describing the emergence of a large amount of new objects, Chinese always say “雨后春筍般地”, while in English people usually say “grow like mushrooms” (像蘑菇一般). From this example, we can find that for the same phenomenon, Chinese and English use different images to describe. The reason just lies in the different environment of the two nations:China abounds with bamboo shoots, while the English speaking countries with mushrooms.

Different climates also play a very important role in the use of metaphor. In the eye of Chinese, summer is an uncomfortable season when the blazing sun bakes the earth all the time but sometimes it suddenly rains heavily without any notice. So when seeing the metaphor “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou are more lovely and more temperate.” in Shakespeare’s 18th sonnet to praise his friend, most Chinese may feel confused. It is very hard for us to connect the summer with a good friend. At this time, we need to make researches on the climate of Britain. Britain lies in the Northern temperate zone and is near to the Atlantic Ocean, so it has an oceanic climate and its summer is warm but never hot. In the mind of English, the summer is the most pleasant season to live in, which forms sharp contrast with the continental climate decided by the location of China.[23] Therefore, there is no doubt that the same wind triggers different associations in Chinese and English.

Besides climate, terrain and species of animals and plants, distribution of mineral deposits is an important factor for us to consider in terms of geological conditions. The ancient poem “問君能有幾多愁,恰似一江春水向東流” reflects China’s terrain is high in the west and low in the east; and the English idiom “carry coals to Newcastle” (近乎做徒勞無(wú)功的事) arises from the background that Newcastle is an industrial city in England’s northeast, famous for coal exportation.[24]

Secondly, metaphors reflect traditional culture and values. People in different nations have different ways of life, thinking, culture and mentalities. As shown above, metaphor and culture have close relations. Through metaphor, people can well understand the objective world. And metaphor, to some extent, reflects and determines the shaping of a nation’s culture and values. It is because that when people make metaphors on certain images, their views of culture and values must be manifested in these metaphors consciously or unconsciously. For example, in Chinese culture the pine, the bamboo and the plum are called three gentlemen in winter. Because the three of them can survive the extremely cold winter and remain vital. For Chinese, they represent a noble spirit. While in English culture, they are just three common plants and cannot give people any association.

People in Chinese and English culture have different understanding of color. For example (3), “red” is the kind of color Chinese admire and has the meaning of luck, success, faithfulness and wealth, etc. This phenomenon can be explained from the angle of culture. In Chinese culture, Chinese special admiration for red originates from people’s worship and desire for the sun in ancient times. And our forebears’ attachment for the red sunshine is native. Therefore the positive meaning represented by red naturally comes into being. For example, in ancient times, the house, the clothes, and the carts the influential officials lived in , wore and sat in were respectively called “朱門”, “朱衣”, “朱軒”.In modern times, people use “分紅” to refer to the profits distributed to the business cooperators. On the contrary, in English culture, red is a negative word. Because red is also the color of blood, and in the mind of English, blood is the liquid of life, once one bleeds, the flower of life will soon wither. Therefore, they often associate “red” with “violence” and “danger”. Then there are “the red rules of tooth and claw”, “red revenge”, “a red battle”, “red hand” etc.[25] All of these expressions show that red is a kind of unlucky color in English culture.

Besides, because of traditional cultural differences, metaphors on love in Chinese and English are entirely different. For example (4), in both Chinese and English, there is a metaphorical concept——“Love is a journey”(愛情是旅程). Then English say “we cannot turn back now”; in Chinese, there is a similar expression: “我們?cè)僖不夭蝗チ恕薄妒舜骸罚◤垚哿幔? However, the connotations of these two expressions are completely opposite. In the former, love is compared to journey metaphorically, which means that lovers must overcome the difficulties in the love journey together, otherwise they cannot maintain their love. What the expression emphasizes is the determination that lovers strive shoulder by shoulder. While in the latter, the expression implies the speaker’s confusion. Though the lovers regret for their departing love, they cannot go back like before any more.[26]

Thirdly, some metaphors have historical and cultural backgrounds. In both Chinese and English, there are many expressions implying rich historical and cultural backgrounds and produce various associations. For example (5), in Chinese, we say “說曹操,曹操就到”, “暗渡陳倉(cāng)”, “東施效顰”, “臥薪嘗膽”, “負(fù)荊請(qǐng)罪”, “四面楚歌”. Each of these allusions and idioms contains a great deal of historical and cultural information. While English say “meet one’s Waterloo” (慘遭失敗), “ That’s all Greek to me” (一竅不通). The story of “meet one’s Waterloo” can be tracked back to June8, 1815, when the allied forces of Britain and Germany crushed Napolean’s troops in Waterloo, south of Belgium. Later, this expression can be used to describe any situation when one encounters a total defeat.

English historical allusions mostly originated from Greek myth. For example (6), as long as we say “銀河”, “天河”, we will associate the folk story about that the Altair and the Vega meet on over this gutter. While English will call “the milky way”, which comes from the Greek myth. It refers to both the road formed by the dripping milk when Queen Hera fed Hercules, a warrior with great strength, and a milky road from the human world into the palace in the universe.[27]

Fourthly, metaphors give expression to people’s way of living. Researches on the connotative meanings of animals in Chinese and English cultures also reveal the impact of metaphor on people’s living. For example (7), in Chinese, we often encounter such expressions like “像老黃牛一樣干活”, “氣壯如牛”, “鞭打快牛” etc. While if expressing the same meaning, English will say “work like a horse”, “as strong as a horse”, “flog a willing horse”. Why Chinese and English use two different images? It is because that usually Chinese use cattle to plow, while English horses. Cattle and horses respectively become the good helper of Chinese and English in farming, so there are usages about them above.[28] And since horses in ancient China are mainly used for riding and war, the associative meaning of horse in Chinese is that it can be ridden and it runs fast, which gives rise to the expression like “馬上”, “馬到成功” and “一馬當(dāng)先”.

Fifthly, metaphors reflect people’s religious beliefs. Religion is an important source of metaphorical expression. As Christianity is the main spiritual support of westerners and is critical for the formation of English culture, it has penetrated every aspect of English social life, including the English language. And it is manifested most obviously in English metaphors. In fact, “most English metaphors come from religious beliefs and fairy stories. Many characters and events of the Bible make up a large part of English words with unique connotations, and many images of this kind are widely used in metaphors.”[29]

e.g. (8) The two-party system is the apple of the capitalists’ eye, so far as maintaining their political control of the workers is concerned.

就資產(chǎn)階級(jí)維護(hù)對(duì)于工人的政治控制而言,兩黨制是資本家的寶貝。

In this sentence, the metaphor “the apple of the eye” (掌上明珠) comes from The Old Testament of the Bible, “He kept him as the apple of his eye.”(保護(hù)他如同保護(hù)眼中的瞳人). In ancient times, people noticed that pupil in eyes was just like an apple, so they called pupil as “apple of the eye”. As pupil is a very precious part in human body, “apple of the eye” is also used to refer to the person or thing most liked.

Besides, expressions, such as Noah’s Ark, olive branch, Paradise, Forbidden fruit, Adam’s apple and a Juda, also have rich metaphorical meanings.

Instead of Christianity, most of Chinese people believe in Confucianism and Taoism. Like those in English, expressions related to Chinese religious beliefs find their way to metaphors such as “臨時(shí)抱佛腳”, “道高一尺,魔高一丈”, “放下屠刀,立地成佛”, “做一天和尚,撞一天鐘”, “不看僧面看佛面” and “借花獻(xiàn)佛”. After repeated use, the metaphorical meanings of these expressions have already overstepped their literal meaning as religious words.

4.2 Corresponding relations and approaches to the translation of English metaphors

As we know, every nation has its own unique social and cultural backgrounds. There exists great cultural differences between nations, especially in modern times, thanks to the development of advanced and convenient means of communication and transportation, the inter-cultural communication becomes more and more frequent. Meanwhile, because people in different nations must have some similar experience to some extent, the cultural overlap cannot be avoided under this condition.[30]

As shown above, language, especially metaphor has close relation with culture. Metaphor widely exists in both Chinese and English, and typically represents the rich and unique culture of each nation, while the fact that different nations often have different ways of making metaphors poses problems for translators. In the last section, also the most important section, based on a large number of convincing examples and from the angle of cultural analysis, the author is going to discuss the corresponding relations between Chinese and English metaphors, and offer several approaches to the translation of metaphor from English into Chinese.

(i) Full- corresponding relation

So-called full-corresponding is, in fact, such a kind of relation that the object and the image of a metaphor are fully corresponding in Chinese and English. The reason why there is full-corresponding relation in Chinese and English is the cultural overlap we have mentioned above. Although different countries have different cultures, traditions and ways of thinking, we still have a lot in common in using metaphor, because we human beings live in the same material world. As mammals, human beings’ basic living necessities and activities, regardless of their races, are fundamentally the same, or tend to be the same. People from different cultures also share much identical understanding of the nature. Our living environment, such as ecological environment and climate change, as well as our own bodies provide us with the possibility to have same understanding of the outside world and ourselves. At the same time, the common cognitive experience enables people to have basically same mentality to accept metaphors that are fresh to them.[31]

Under the condition of full-corresponding relation, there are two approaches to the translation of this kind of metaphor:

(a) Literal translation-----reproducing the same image in the target language provided that the image has comparable frequency and currency in the appropriate register. That’s to say, through literal translation, the image in source language is entirely retained and the information and effect brought about by the image also can be achieved in target language. “The advantage of literal translation is to enable the readers of the target language to be exposed to and gradually accept the cultural feature of the source language.”[32] For the translation of one-word metaphors, this approach is most useful.

e.g. (9) a ray of hope 一線希望

(10) Chain reaction 連鎖反應(yīng)

(11) the white terror

(12) cold winds

冷言冷語(yǔ)

While for the complex metaphors with a high degree of cultural overlap, this approach is also feasible.

e.g. (13) to go through fire and water 赴湯蹈火

(14) to head a wolf into the house 引狼入室

(15) to give somebody green light 給某人開綠燈

Also some sentences with metaphors are translated by this approach.

e.g. (16) Life is a journey .人生是一種旅途。

(17) All the world’s a stage. (Shakespeare) 整個(gè)世界是個(gè)舞臺(tái)。

(18) The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure.

自由之樹須常以愛國(guó)志士和暴君的血來(lái)澆灌,這些鮮血是自由之樹的天然肥料

(b)Translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image. As a matter of fact, metaphor is condensed simile. Aristotle believed that simile derives from metaphor and pointed out that simile is a kind of metaphor. They are identical in essence. This approach can be used when target language is not emotive in character. Under this condition, this way can modify the shock of a metaphor.

e.g. (19) a thunder of applause 雷鳴般的掌聲

(20) a lion at home, a mouse abroad 在家如獅,在外如鼠

(21) Love and cough cannot be hid. 愛情像咳嗽一樣是掩蓋不了的。

(22) A good surgeon must have an eagle’s eye, a lion’s heart and a lady’s hand.[33]

好的外科醫(yī)生必須有像鷹般的視力,獅子般的膽量和仕女般的巧手。

The contents above are about the approach to the translation of metaphor under the condition of full-corresponding relation. However, cultural overlap doesn’t often occur. In most cases, due to the differences in history, geological conditions, ways of life, traditions and habits, English and Chinese people don’t always have identical thinking, understanding, views and opinions on the same object. Therefore, not many full-corresponding relations can be found, and more metaphors in Chinese and English have semi-corresponding and non-corresponding relations.

(ii) Semi-corresponding relation [39]

In both Chinese and English, we often come across that different words are used for the same metaphorical meaning and many metaphors have the same metaphorical meaning but different literal meaning (images are different). “Metaphors of this kind only partly convey the corresponding cultural features of their equivalents, so the relations of these metaphorical equivalents are called semi-corresponding relations.”[34] The reason why semi-corresponding relations happen is because people from different cultures have different associations of the same or different images. In view of this, there are two approaches to translation of metaphor of this kind.

(a) Substitution of the image in source language with a standard target language image.[35] When the image in source language cannot convey the real meaning in target language, even clashes with target language culture, this approach is adaptable. At this time, we should try to understand both the superficial structure and the deep connotation of the metaphor in source language at first, and then fully display them by a proper image in target language that has similar metaphorical meaning.

e.g.(23) birds of a feather 一丘之貉

(24) lame duck 落選的議員

(25) swan song 最后的言行;最后的作品

(26) Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion. 寧為雞頭, 勿為牛后

(27) Every life has its roses and thorns. 人生有苦有樂

(28) Money makes the mare go. 有錢能使鬼推磨

(b) Reproducing metaphor with simile (or metaphor) plus sense or note.[36] As a result of social and cultural factors, sometimes in translation of metaphor from English into Chinese, although the image in source language is retained, it is still hard for Chinese readers to understand because the image is of obvious cultural features of English nation or implies certain historical events or character allusions. Meanwhile, in translating some English metaphors, whose connotations may be lost if through direct translation, we cannot find equivalents in Chinese. For metaphors of this type, especially for a number of names of people and places with cultural connotations, we usually adopt this approach to translation.

e.g. (29) The plan, which seems so promising, turned out to be a Pandora’s box.

看起來(lái)如此有希望的計(jì)劃, 結(jié)果卻是一個(gè)帶來(lái)不幸的潘多拉盒子。

(30)The die is cast. 骰子一出, 大局已定。

(31 ) A little pot is soon hot. 壺小易熱, 量小易怒。

(iii) Non- corresponding relation

As Chinese and English have their own unique culture, many metaphorical concepts only exist in either Chinese or English. In addition, there are metaphors that may have similar literal meanings, but their metaphorical meanings are totally different.[37] Metaphors of this kind have non-corresponding relations and we should adopt the following two approaches to the translation of these metaphors:

(a) Conversion of metaphor to sense. For certain metaphors, the degree of correspondence between source language and target language is very low. Under this condition, we should take connotation as the first and image as the second. That’s to say, in translation of metaphors, sometimes we have to change the image in source language in order to correctly express the connotations. Under this condition, the approach of conversion of metaphor to sense can be applied.

e.g. (32) the heel of Achilles 致命的弱點(diǎn)

(33) Love me, love my dog. 愛屋及烏

(34) Homer sometimes nods. 智者千慮,必有一失

(35) I supported him from the egg to the apples though he once told me off.

雖然他曾責(zé)備過我,但是我自始至終支持他。

(b) Deletion. Just from the literal meaning of “deletion”, we know that through this approach, the metaphor is deleted in translation. If a metaphor can find no metaphorical equivalent in Chinese, and after a thorough analysis of the text, we find it is redundant and its function has been fulfilled in other parts of the text, we can choose to directly delete it. Through this approach, the original aesthetic value may be lost and the force of infection in source language may be lessened. Of course, sometimes it is inevitable. But the translation can complement the loss brought about by deletion of images through other means. The four-word idioms in Chinese often can play this role.[38]

e.g. (36) The ship is plowing the sea. 船在乘風(fēng)破浪。

(37) By the winter of 1942 their resistance to the Nazi terror had become only a shadow. (Winston Churchill)

到了1942年冬季,他們對(duì)于納粹恐怖統(tǒng)治的抵抗已經(jīng)名存實(shí)亡了。

(38) I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a desert state sweltering with the heat of injustice and oppression will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. (Martin Luther King, Jr. I Have a Dream)

我有一個(gè)夢(mèng)想,有一天,甚至那倍受屈辱和迫害的凄涼的密西西比州,也將改造成自由與公正的綠洲。

In example (38), the Mississippi is compared to a desert which forms a sharp contrast with oasis. However, in the translation, the desert is not translated, but replaced by “凄涼的” to express the speaker’s intention. In doing so, the translation can avoid misunderstanding that Mississippi is a real desert state. 5. Conclusion

Based on the belief that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but also a cognitive mode, the main idea of the thesis is to talk about the translation of metaphors from English into Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences between Chinese and English. For this purpose, the body of this thesis is pided into three parts. The first part, the author mainly analyzes the interrelation between language, culture and translation. The second part introduces some major factors related to metaphor, including definition, characteristics and classification. The third part, also the most important part of this thesis, thoroughly illustrates the translation of metaphors from English into Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences, including cultural connotation of metaphors and approaches to translation of English metaphors in terms of the corresponding relations.

As metaphor has rich cultural connotations, in order to achieve successful translation of English metaphors, a translator should cultivate and continually enhance his own cultural awareness. This requires a translator to have both bilingual competence and bicultural or even multi-cultural knowledge in order to adapt to effective communication in different cultural context. The author hopes the six approaches to translation of English metaphors will be helpful. They are: literal translation, reproducing the same image in the target language; translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image; substitution of the image in the source language with a standard target language image; reproducing metaphor with simile (or metaphor) plus sense or note; conversion of metaphor to sense; and deletion.

Of course, there must be many improper places and immature views in this thesis. The author sincerely wishes for inpidual reader’s criticism and correction.

Bibliography

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[2]劉國(guó)忠. 隱喻與跨文化交際[J]. 安徽大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)(哲學(xué)社會(huì)科學(xué)版),2003,5 P121

[3]Zhang Xiuguo. English Rhetoric. Qinghua Unversity Press and Beijing Translation Unversity Press, 2005 P161

[4]Hu Shuzhong. English Rhetoric. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001 P175

[5]張建新. 從文化角度看英語(yǔ)隱喻的漢譯[D]. 中國(guó)期刊網(wǎng). 外交學(xué)院,2004 P3

[6]毛榮貴. 新世紀(jì)大學(xué)英漢翻譯研究[M] . 上海:上海交通大學(xué)出版社.2004 P13

[7]David Katan. Translation Cultures: An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004 P16

[8]王振亞. 語(yǔ)言與文化[M].北京:高等教育出版社.2004 P10-14

[9]張治英. 英語(yǔ)隱喻形成的社會(huì)文化背景及其翻譯[J]. 湖南商學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)(雙月刊),1999,5 P77

[10]同[9] P77

[11]王 寧. 文化研究語(yǔ)境下的翻譯研究[M].(載《文化與翻譯》)P24

[12]同[3] P161

[13]李鑫華. 英語(yǔ)修辭格詳論[M]. 上海:上海外語(yǔ)教育出版社,2001 P18

[14]同[13] P18

[15]同[4] P176

[16]周軼. 英語(yǔ)隱喻及其漢譯[D]. 中國(guó)期刊網(wǎng). 上海師范大學(xué), 2004 P2

[17]同[16] P1

[18]同[16] P1

[19]同[3] P161

[20]朱俊松,秦濤. 形象化語(yǔ)言的譯法——論英語(yǔ)隱喻的可譯性和翻譯方法[J].華東船舶工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)(社會(huì)科學(xué)版),2004,3 P65

[21]同[9] P78

[22]李 健. 英漢語(yǔ)隱喻的跨文化對(duì)比及翻譯[J].青海師范大學(xué)出版社(哲學(xué)社會(huì)科學(xué)版),2002,2 P131

[23]陳 鳳. 中英文化差異對(duì)漢英語(yǔ)言表達(dá)的影響[J]. 中國(guó)地質(zhì)大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)(社會(huì)科學(xué)版),2001,1 P43

[24]程同春. 英語(yǔ)隱喻的思考與翻譯[J]. 中國(guó)科技翻譯,2005,2 P39

[25]紀(jì)曉靜. 漢英語(yǔ)中“紅”之隱喻對(duì)比分析[J]. 修辭學(xué)習(xí),2003,4 P48

[26]曲 紅. 中英文化中的愛情隱喻[J]. 株洲工學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào),2002,5 P51

[27]同[28] P44

[28]同[28] P44

[29]谷彥君. 英語(yǔ)的社會(huì)文化背景與英語(yǔ)隱喻的形成[J]. 佳木斯大學(xué)社會(huì)科學(xué)學(xué)報(bào),2002,1 P51

[30]蔣榮豐. 論英漢隱喻互譯中的對(duì)應(yīng)問題[J]. 江蘇教育學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào),2004,6 P114

[31]同[35] P114

[32]同[29] P38

[33]同[29] P38

[34]同[35] P114

[35]同[29] P38

[36]同[29] P38

篇8

【關(guān)鍵詞】英漢植物習(xí)語(yǔ);喻義;文化差異

一、引言

習(xí)語(yǔ)是語(yǔ)言的精華,是人類智慧的結(jié)晶,具有濃厚的地方和民族色彩,習(xí)語(yǔ)來(lái)源于生活,是人們?cè)趧趧?dòng)過程中創(chuàng)造的,蘊(yùn)含著大量的文化信息。從與植物相關(guān)的英漢習(xí)語(yǔ)可以反映出民族特征,反映出該民族的生活習(xí)慣,思維方式,反映出民族的歷史和文化背景。

由于英漢文化的差異較大,再加上植物分布的情況不一樣,英漢植物喻詞的意義異多同少。根據(jù)2002年何善芬對(duì)陸谷孫的《英漢大詞典》和羅竹風(fēng)的《漢語(yǔ)大詞典》中所列的植物喻詞的統(tǒng)計(jì),英漢常見的植物詞有495個(gè),英語(yǔ)有172個(gè),而漢語(yǔ)只有44個(gè)。

在跨文化交流中,植物詞作為一種符號(hào)系統(tǒng)在英漢兩種語(yǔ)言里具有不同的用途及文化價(jià)值、文化意蘊(yùn),這就要求人們要了解使用該語(yǔ)言國(guó)家的文化傳統(tǒng)、價(jià)值觀念、風(fēng)土人情,并把握和細(xì)究植物詞語(yǔ)的意義以及它所承載的文化信息,從而有效地進(jìn)行跨文化的言語(yǔ)交際。

二、英漢習(xí)語(yǔ)中植物詞的喻義對(duì)比

在英漢文學(xué)史上都有志士仁人以花卉草木為題,寄托情志、抒思的千古傳誦的不朽名篇。本部分主要探討英漢習(xí)語(yǔ)中植物詞喻義的相同之處和不同之處。

1. 英語(yǔ)中有而漢語(yǔ)中無(wú)的植物

蘋果(apple)是人們喜愛的最為常見的水果,英語(yǔ)中其喻義特別豐富。在美國(guó)棒球運(yùn)動(dòng)特別流行和普及,因而人們用最普通的蘋果喻指棒球運(yùn)動(dòng)。如:He likes to play apple.(他喜歡打棒球)。蘋果又常用來(lái)俗稱“同伴、家伙”。如:He is a real slick apple.(他真是個(gè)狡詐的家伙)。蘋果還可以喻指“炸彈”、“討好巴結(jié)的人或行為”等(何善芬,2003:171)。而在漢語(yǔ)中蘋果據(jù)說是張騫出使西域時(shí)帶回的,它在漢語(yǔ)中僅指水果而已,沒有什么特殊的喻義。

2. 漢語(yǔ)中有而英語(yǔ)中無(wú)的植物詞

竹(bamboo),中空有節(jié),具有挺拔堅(jiān)硬的特性,因此,我國(guó)古今的人們常將竹贊譽(yù)為:不剛不柔,質(zhì)樸無(wú)華;高節(jié)虛心,亭亭正直生。竹子的“空心”代表謙遜,它的瘦削和常青代表堅(jiān)韌不拔和年邁高齡。竹節(jié)常暗示做學(xué)問更上一層樓。中國(guó)人喜歡種竹、賞竹、詠竹,竹文化相當(dāng)發(fā)達(dá)。竹還象征永恒的青春和不可征服的力量,人們用“雨后春筍”來(lái)形容新生事物的大量出現(xiàn),英美人則說spring up like mushrooms,因?yàn)橛?guó)沒有竹,甚至連英語(yǔ)中的bamboo一詞也是外來(lái)語(yǔ),所以英語(yǔ)里是沒有用竹子作喻體的。

3. 英漢中喻義相同的植物詞

玫瑰(rose)在英漢語(yǔ)言中都用來(lái)比喻美好和愛情。例如:roses all the way(諸事順利,一帆風(fēng)順),這個(gè)表達(dá)據(jù)說是來(lái)源于英國(guó)詩(shī)人Robert Browning寫過的一首詩(shī):It was roses,roses all the way. 詩(shī)句中常出現(xiàn)玫瑰的倩影,如:著名詩(shī)人Robert Burns曾借玫瑰來(lái)歌頌愛情:O,my love is like a red,red rose. 杜牧在詩(shī)句中稱玫瑰為“朵朵精神葉葉柔,雨晴香拂醉人頭”。

4. 英漢中喻義不同的植物詞

柳樹(willow)早春發(fā)芽,在漢文化中常用柳樹喻指春天的來(lái)臨和春光明媚,《詩(shī)經(jīng)》有云:“昔我往矣,楊柳依依,今我來(lái)思,雨雪霏霏”。柳枝還是朋友分離時(shí)候的信物,一種離別之情的寄托。而在西方文化中,英語(yǔ)willow比喻失落、死亡,有戴柳葉花圈以悼死者的習(xí)俗,所以to wear the willow為“痛哭心愛的人,思念親人”之意。

三、英漢植物習(xí)語(yǔ)喻義體現(xiàn)的文化差異

習(xí)語(yǔ)之所以最能鮮明地反映一個(gè)民族的文化特點(diǎn)是和這種歷史文化的沉積分不開的。因此,考察習(xí)語(yǔ)可以看到英漢文化的特定社會(huì)背景及發(fā)展的文化軌跡,從而比較準(zhǔn)確地把握英漢語(yǔ)言中的文化差異。

1. 地理環(huán)境

英國(guó)是一個(gè)島國(guó),英國(guó)人喜歡海洋,所以英語(yǔ)許多習(xí)語(yǔ)來(lái)源于航海業(yè)。中國(guó)雖臨海,而且海岸線漫長(zhǎng),但航海業(yè)一直比較落后,與航海有關(guān)的習(xí)語(yǔ)很少。中國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)人口眾多,是一個(gè)典型的農(nóng)業(yè)大國(guó),所以漢語(yǔ)習(xí)語(yǔ)中有很大一部分是反映農(nóng)耕生活的,如“五谷豐登,樹大招風(fēng)”等。由于地理、生態(tài)環(huán)境的不同,英漢習(xí)語(yǔ)的許多比喻形象也具有明顯的差異。漢語(yǔ)說“雨后春筍”,英語(yǔ)卻說“spring up like mushroom”。

2.

中國(guó)以儒學(xué)為中心,儒、道、佛相融合的思想體系在人們心中扎根,規(guī)范著人們的行為與認(rèn)識(shí)。在西方,基督教起著特別重要的作用,人們將上帝視為理想的化身。漢語(yǔ)中有不少植物習(xí)語(yǔ)和佛教有關(guān),如:借花獻(xiàn)佛,檀越,檀林等等。英語(yǔ)中也有不少植物習(xí)語(yǔ)和基督教有關(guān),很多都來(lái)源于《圣經(jīng)》,如:the apple of one’s eye(珍愛的人;掌上明珠)。

3. 民族審美觀

西方民族的審美心理偏重于再現(xiàn),即注重審美的真實(shí)性,由于它的理性化,失去不少審美情趣;中國(guó)的審美心理也是以人為中心,因而中國(guó)的審美情趣相對(duì)而言比較豐富。英語(yǔ)在歷史上曾受到斯堪的納維亞語(yǔ)、法語(yǔ)、拉丁語(yǔ)、希臘語(yǔ)、德語(yǔ)等的影響,引入外來(lái)的植物喻詞。而漢民族由于豐富的歷史文化及長(zhǎng)期的歷史積淀,形成了本民族對(duì)某種植物特有的情感與文化,產(chǎn)生特有的詞義,如松竹、松鶴等。這種植物詞與動(dòng)物詞,植物詞與植物詞構(gòu)成并列式的復(fù)合名詞,具有喻義的情況在英語(yǔ)里是不多見的。在漢語(yǔ)中,有不少能帶給我們積極的心理聯(lián)想或富有審美情趣的語(yǔ)言卻未必能引起英美人的共鳴。

4. 思維方式

東方民族的思維方式被描述為“整體的”、“辯證的”、“具象的”、“主觀的”和“模糊的”;而西方民族的思維方式被描述為“具體的”、“分析的”、“抽象的”、“客觀的”和“精確的”。東方人注重實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn),注重整體思考,西方人注重科學(xué)、理性,重視分析、實(shí)證。

英語(yǔ)中,意義引申的基礎(chǔ)是思維方式即縱向發(fā)展、微觀分解,方式是提喻,意義范圍較小;漢語(yǔ)中,引申的基礎(chǔ)是思維方式的橫向聯(lián)系,注重形似,方式是隱喻,意義范圍較大。如:clove(丁香)英語(yǔ)中的引申意義為“丁香花”、“調(diào)味品”、“丁香紫,淡紫色”;漢語(yǔ)中的引申意義為“女人的舌頭”、“丁香花狀的紐扣”、“丁香花狀的耳飾”。

四、總結(jié)

與植物相關(guān)的英漢習(xí)語(yǔ)與其它方面的英漢習(xí)語(yǔ)一樣反映出社會(huì)文化的一個(gè)側(cè)面,滲透著濃郁的文化氣息,展示出民族語(yǔ)言文化的發(fā)展與演變。各民族不僅使用其字面上的意義(1iteral meaning),而且使用其比喻意義(figurative meaning)。隨著社會(huì)的發(fā)展,將會(huì)有更多的與植物相關(guān)的習(xí)語(yǔ)產(chǎn)生,只有認(rèn)真研究和比較英漢習(xí)語(yǔ)中植物詞喻義的差異,理解習(xí)語(yǔ)中植物的表層意思,而且要清楚其深層含義,才能有效地傳遞習(xí)語(yǔ)的文化信息,避免因文化差異引起誤解和沖突,促進(jìn)跨文化交流。

參考文獻(xiàn):

篇9

關(guān)鍵詞:牛津英語(yǔ);文化差異;滲透

中圖分類號(hào):G620 文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼:A 文章編號(hào):1003-2851(2012)-06-0113-01

一、引言

小學(xué)階段英語(yǔ)教學(xué)的主要目的不僅是教會(huì)學(xué)生掌握語(yǔ)言知識(shí),更重要的是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生用英語(yǔ)進(jìn)行交際的能力,確切地說是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生成功地同外國(guó)人進(jìn)行跨文化的交際。語(yǔ)言學(xué)家呂必松曾指出:“所謂交際文化,我們可以理解為是隱含在語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)中的反映一個(gè)民族的價(jià)值觀念、是非標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、社會(huì)習(xí)俗、心理狀態(tài)、思維方式等文化因素?!币虼?,我們奮戰(zhàn)在一線的小學(xué)英語(yǔ)教師都要非常重視學(xué)生跨文化交際能力的培養(yǎng),真正地激發(fā)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)的興趣,從而提高學(xué)生英語(yǔ)的綜合水平。

二、如何在小學(xué)英語(yǔ)課堂中滲透文化差異

(一)從教室環(huán)境入手

針對(duì)小學(xué)生年紀(jì)小、求知欲和好奇心重,喜歡觀察身邊事物的特點(diǎn)。我們英語(yǔ)老師可以積極主動(dòng)地布置教室,適當(dāng)設(shè)計(jì)一些英語(yǔ)名人名言,張貼學(xué)生自制的英語(yǔ)手抄報(bào),體現(xiàn)出英語(yǔ)文化的氛圍,吸引學(xué)生的注意并激起他們對(duì)英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)的興趣。教師也可定時(shí)開展小型的英語(yǔ)角活動(dòng),為學(xué)生提供練習(xí)語(yǔ)言的環(huán)境,也可通過英語(yǔ)角鍛煉他們的膽量和交際能力。如果有條件利用活動(dòng)課時(shí)間給他們觀看一些他們感興趣的英文原聲動(dòng)畫片,不僅能給他們一個(gè)良好的模仿學(xué)習(xí)對(duì)象,還能使他們從中學(xué)到很多英語(yǔ)的俗語(yǔ)及文化特色。

(二)從生活入手

我們一線的英語(yǔ)教師可以根據(jù)教學(xué)目標(biāo)和內(nèi)容隨機(jī)介紹一些與日常生活密切相關(guān)的英語(yǔ)國(guó)家的文化知識(shí),激發(fā)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)的興趣。如在進(jìn)行牛津小學(xué)英語(yǔ)3B Unit 10 Do you play…?的教學(xué)時(shí),可以讓學(xué)生收集一些除書本上以外和體育運(yùn)動(dòng)有關(guān)系的單詞:Olympic Games(奧運(yùn)會(huì)),tennis(網(wǎng)球),skating(溜冰)…又如4B Unit7 At a snack bar,可以讓學(xué)生準(zhǔn)備ice-cream(冰淇淋),hamburger(漢堡),sandwich(三明治)這些他們平常經(jīng)常會(huì)吃的英語(yǔ)國(guó)家中最常見的飲料和食品的實(shí)物,培養(yǎng)學(xué)生從自己身邊去發(fā)現(xiàn)英語(yǔ)、學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)的能力。每逢過節(jié)的時(shí)候就可以讓學(xué)生們?nèi)ナ占恍╆P(guān)于這個(gè)節(jié)日的資料,記下來(lái),課堂上進(jìn)行交流,從中學(xué)生能學(xué)習(xí)到關(guān)于英語(yǔ)節(jié)日的傳統(tǒng)習(xí)慣及文化習(xí)俗。

(三)從活動(dòng)入手

學(xué)習(xí)和掌握英語(yǔ),僅僅靠有限的課堂教學(xué)時(shí)間是遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不夠的,我們教師還要積極利用課外時(shí)間,組織一些與學(xué)生日常生活密切相關(guān)的、富有英語(yǔ)色彩的活動(dòng)來(lái)激發(fā)學(xué)生的興趣,使他們產(chǎn)生了解外國(guó)文化的愿望。正如一位英語(yǔ)教育家所說:“Tell me, I will forget.Show me,I may remember.Involve me,I will understand.”在教學(xué)實(shí)踐中,豐富學(xué)生對(duì)于英語(yǔ)文化知識(shí)的途徑有很多。如:舉辦圣誕晚會(huì)、英語(yǔ)小故事演講比賽、觀看英語(yǔ)電影、卡通片;收集有關(guān)英語(yǔ)國(guó)家的飲食習(xí)俗,重要的節(jié)日,傳統(tǒng)的文娛和體育活動(dòng)等資料。

正是通過這一點(diǎn)一滴地滲透英語(yǔ)國(guó)家的文化知識(shí),學(xué)生才能感受到一點(diǎn)一點(diǎn)的culture。通過讓學(xué)生感受、體驗(yàn)、理解、接受來(lái)自英語(yǔ)國(guó)家的文化,進(jìn)而促進(jìn)他們文化意識(shí)的形成。

(四)從情境教學(xué)入手,培養(yǎng)英語(yǔ)思維能力

要培養(yǎng)學(xué)生跨文化交際能力,就必須重視培養(yǎng)學(xué)生對(duì)英語(yǔ)文化的意識(shí),不斷提高學(xué)生對(duì)中西方文化的敏感性,培養(yǎng)學(xué)生英語(yǔ)思維能力。小學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)時(shí),往往會(huì)受到母語(yǔ)的干擾。所以,在課堂上,通過組織一些以學(xué)生為主體、創(chuàng)造模擬情景的練習(xí)活動(dòng),如pair work,role play,group discussion,presentation等,一方面充分發(fā)揮了學(xué)生的主體性,激發(fā)他們的積極參與性,另一方面也為他們提供了口頭鍛煉的機(jī)會(huì)。通過創(chuàng)造模擬情景,使學(xué)生身臨其境,掌握如何用英語(yǔ)打電話、看病、購(gòu)物等一些基本生活語(yǔ)言技能。這種情景教學(xué)不僅使學(xué)生對(duì)所學(xué)內(nèi)容記憶深刻,而且當(dāng)學(xué)生在生活中碰到類似的語(yǔ)境時(shí),便能從容自如。

三、結(jié)束語(yǔ)

綜上所述,在英語(yǔ)教學(xué)過程中,教師不僅要認(rèn)真?zhèn)湔n,把握教材,還要仔細(xì)琢磨課文所反映的英語(yǔ)國(guó)家的文化、風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣、風(fēng)土人情等等,只有這樣,才能使學(xué)生真正獲得英語(yǔ)知識(shí)和交際英語(yǔ)能力。所以,學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)的過程,也是了解和掌握英語(yǔ)文化背景知識(shí)的過程。對(duì)文化背景的掌握程度直接影響到一個(gè)人的英語(yǔ)使用能力,是能否得體運(yùn)用語(yǔ)言的前提。因此,這就要求我們教師也要不斷學(xué)習(xí)、不斷更新,提高自己的文化修養(yǎng)和文化意識(shí),要熟悉自己國(guó)家的文化和學(xué)生現(xiàn)有的知識(shí)水平及接受能力,使中西文化形成對(duì)比,更有效地進(jìn)行文化教學(xué),發(fā)揮教師的示范性作用。

參考文獻(xiàn)

[1]耿衛(wèi)忠.西方傳統(tǒng)節(jié)日與文化[M].太原:書海出版社,2006.

[2]鄧炎昌.現(xiàn)代美國(guó)社會(huì)與文化[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1995.

[3]許果,梅林.文化差異與跨文化交際能力的培養(yǎng)[J].重慶大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào),2002.

篇10

英語(yǔ)是世界上使用最為廣泛的語(yǔ)言之一,也是聯(lián)合國(guó)及眾多國(guó)際組織使用的官方語(yǔ)言之一,用英語(yǔ)作為母語(yǔ)的人數(shù)位居世界第三,僅次于漢語(yǔ)和西班牙語(yǔ)。由于地理環(huán)境、民族特點(diǎn)、民族風(fēng)情的不同,很多以英語(yǔ)為母語(yǔ)的國(guó)家文化與中國(guó)文化存在很大的差異性,所以學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)和學(xué)習(xí)漢語(yǔ)也就必然存在一定的差異性?!读x務(wù)教育英語(yǔ)課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)》(2011年版)指出:“在英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)的較高階段,要通過擴(kuò)大學(xué)生接觸外國(guó)文化的范圍,幫助學(xué)生拓展視野,使他們提高對(duì)中外文化異同的敏感性和鑒別能力,進(jìn)而提高跨文化交際能力”。因此,要學(xué)好英語(yǔ),就必須了解、熟悉中西方文化對(duì)英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)的影響。

一、中西文化的差異性分析

(一)地理環(huán)境的差異性

不同的國(guó)家、不同的民族因?yàn)樵诘厍蛏纤幍牡乩憝h(huán)境不同、生存環(huán)境不同,他們所使用的語(yǔ)言產(chǎn)生的背景也不盡相同。在很多情況下,對(duì)同一事物或同一現(xiàn)象也會(huì)通過不同的語(yǔ)言形式表現(xiàn)出來(lái),這些都直接影響不同語(yǔ)種之間的互通使用。比如:在漢語(yǔ)中通常習(xí)慣于把表示方位的詞語(yǔ)按“東西南北”排序,而在英語(yǔ)中則通常習(xí)慣于“north,south,east、west”。在漢語(yǔ)中常用的“東南、“東北、西南、西北”等表示方向,而在英語(yǔ)中通常用為“southeast,northeast,southwest,northwest”。

(二)文化傳統(tǒng)的差異性

在1840以前,中國(guó)是一個(gè)長(zhǎng)期處于閉關(guān)自守的國(guó)家,與西方國(guó)家的交流非常少,這就形成了完全不同的文化傳統(tǒng)。文化傳統(tǒng)對(duì)于一個(gè)民族的影響往往是長(zhǎng)期的,甚至是根深蒂固的,這必然對(duì)語(yǔ)言習(xí)慣、語(yǔ)言用法產(chǎn)生影響。比如:中國(guó)人比較謙讓而西方人比較直率,中國(guó)人見面時(shí)習(xí)慣于問“你吃了嗎?”,西方人見了面習(xí)慣于說“見到你很高興(Nicetomeetyou!)”,中國(guó)人為了表示禮貌通常都是優(yōu)先考慮對(duì)方的興趣愛好,而西方國(guó)家通常為“Idon´tcare.(我無(wú)所謂)”,這似乎顯得有點(diǎn)不尊重對(duì)方,但在西方卻是家常便飯。

(三)生活方式的差異性

中國(guó)人自古勤勞、樸實(shí)、勇敢,牛是中國(guó)古代人用來(lái)生產(chǎn)勞作的工具,牛向來(lái)以埋頭苦干、任勞任怨,漢語(yǔ)中通常用“黃牛”精神、“俯首甘為孺子牛”來(lái)表?yè)P(yáng)人的勤奮,而外國(guó)人主要靠馬耕作,所以西方人通常用馬的精神來(lái)表示一個(gè)人的吃苦耐勞與勤勞,“asstrongasahorse(像馬一樣強(qiáng)壯)”、“worklikeahorse(像馬一樣勞作)”,另外西方人航海業(yè)比較發(fā)達(dá),所以與水、魚、船相關(guān)的詞語(yǔ)也較多,如“tomisstheboat(失去機(jī)會(huì))”,“anoddfish(怪人)”等。

(四)宗教信仰的差異性

中國(guó)人信仰佛教,西方人信仰基督教。這兩種信仰對(duì)漢語(yǔ)與英語(yǔ)的語(yǔ)言及各自的本土文化影響是很大大的,處處能看這些信仰的身影。比如:中國(guó)人喜歡雙數(shù),認(rèn)為雙數(shù)為吉利數(shù)字,通常說“好事成雙”、“六六大順”、“十全十美”等,而西方人認(rèn)為單數(shù)為吉利數(shù)字,通常說“Onehundredandonethanks(千恩萬(wàn)謝)”。在中國(guó)人的信仰中有“玉皇大帝”、“閻王”、“龍王”,有“大水沖了龍王廟,一家人不認(rèn)一家人”等說法,而在英語(yǔ)中則不存在這些說法,只有從拉丁語(yǔ)、法語(yǔ)等其他語(yǔ)種借來(lái)的宗教詞語(yǔ),如“monk(僧侶)”,“angel(天使)”,“dean(教長(zhǎng))”等。

(五)思維方式的差異性

中國(guó)人與西方人在思維方式上也是有很大區(qū)別,因此在語(yǔ)言表達(dá)方式上也有很大的差別。比如:中國(guó)人姓名中的姓在前名在后,而西方人名在前、姓在后;中國(guó)人在寫信時(shí)地名通常由大到,西方人則是由小到大;中國(guó)人習(xí)慣于按時(shí)間順序以及事情發(fā)展的順序,由論據(jù)到論點(diǎn),而西方人則習(xí)慣于先擺出自己的觀點(diǎn),然后通過論據(jù)材料證明論點(diǎn),所以在學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)時(shí)一定要注意這些與漢語(yǔ)中的差別。

二、基于中外文化差異性的英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)方式

(一)深入了解西方國(guó)家的歷史文化

每種語(yǔ)言都有自己的民族特點(diǎn),要想準(zhǔn)確把握這種語(yǔ)言就必須了解這種語(yǔ)言所在國(guó)家、所在民族的風(fēng)土人情和風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣,因?yàn)椴煌奈幕尘翱梢杂绊懕久褡逭Z(yǔ)言的形成、演變及使用習(xí)慣,英語(yǔ)也不例外。所以在學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)時(shí),首先要深入了解英語(yǔ)國(guó)家(特別是美國(guó)、英國(guó))的民族風(fēng)情,了解這些民族風(fēng)情與我國(guó)的民族風(fēng)情的相同點(diǎn)及不同點(diǎn),這樣才能做到在學(xué)習(xí)、使用英語(yǔ)時(shí)更加靈活,才能真正掌握英語(yǔ)詞匯、句子、段落及整篇文章的要表達(dá)的思想。

(二)掌握漢英詞匯之間的差異性

詞匯是語(yǔ)言的基本組成單位,漢語(yǔ)和英語(yǔ)中有些詞匯在很多情況下其意義和內(nèi)涵是不完全相同的,因此要從不同的角度挖掘詞匯的內(nèi)涵,才能有利于理解掌握。如:在表述顏色上,西方文化就比較理性、科學(xué),其顏色的象征意義也比較直接。如:“red(紅色)”主要是血的顏色,而“blood”則是人身體的生命體液,一旦血從生命中流淌出來(lái),生命也就隨之凋謝,所以在英語(yǔ)中“red”通常含有“恐怖、暴力”之意,而中漢語(yǔ)中“紅色”則有“熱情奔放”之意。

(三)在語(yǔ)法學(xué)習(xí)中體會(huì)中西方文化的差異

每一種語(yǔ)言都有其獨(dú)特的語(yǔ)法體系,有時(shí)差異還比較大,比較明顯的差異主要有:英語(yǔ)中常常有時(shí)態(tài)的變化,而漢語(yǔ)則沒有;英語(yǔ)中有單數(shù)與復(fù)數(shù)之分,而漢語(yǔ)中則沒有;英語(yǔ)中有動(dòng)詞結(jié)構(gòu)變化之分,而漢語(yǔ)中則沒有,英語(yǔ)和漢語(yǔ)中的副詞都可以修飾形容詞,而英語(yǔ)中的副詞可以放在不同的地方,而漢語(yǔ)中的副詞只能放在形容詞與動(dòng)詞之前;英語(yǔ)中的從句一般放在所修飾的主詞之后,而在漢語(yǔ)中修飾語(yǔ)句則放在修飾之前;英語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)以主語(yǔ)、謂語(yǔ)、賓語(yǔ)為主,變有例外,而漢語(yǔ)主要是主語(yǔ)、謂語(yǔ)、賓語(yǔ),等等。

(四)在口語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)中感受中西方文化的差異性

口語(yǔ)是日常的交際語(yǔ)言,其語(yǔ)言的表現(xiàn)形式比較簡(jiǎn)單,但中文與英文的口語(yǔ)使用時(shí)有很大的差別,學(xué)習(xí)口語(yǔ)時(shí)應(yīng)該把語(yǔ)言放在其實(shí)際的背景下去掌握。中國(guó)人見面時(shí)常說:“你好!”而西方人則說“Hi!”,“Hello!”,“Goodafternoon”;中國(guó)人喜歡問“你今年高壽”等問題,而西方人對(duì)這些問題則諱莫如深,他們常常說“Niceweather,isn’tit”,“Howareyou(gettingon)”。中西方口語(yǔ)表達(dá)之所以有這么大的差別,追根究底是因?yàn)槠涓髯圆煌奈幕?xí)慣決定的。

(五)掌握更多的翻譯理論和技巧