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GeorgeOrwellwasthepennameofEricBlair,aBritishpoliticalnovelistandessayistwhosepointedcriticismsofpoliticaloppressionpropelledhimintoprominencetowardthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury.Bornin1903toBritishcolonistsinBengal,India,Orwellreceivedhiseducationataseriesofprivateschools,includingEton,aneliteschoolinEngland.HispainfulexperienceswithsnobbishnessandsocialelitismatEton,aswellashisintimatefamiliaritywiththerealityofBritishimperialisminIndia,madehimdeeplysuspiciousoftheentrenchedclasssysteminEnglishsociety.Asayoungman,Orwellbecameasocialist,speakingopenlyagainsttheexcessesofgovernmentseastandwestandfightingbrieflyforthesocialistcauseduringtheSpanishCivilWar,whichlastedfrom1936to1939.

UnlikemanyBritishsocialistsinthe1930sand1940s,OrwellwasnotenamoredoftheSovietUnionanditspolicies,nordidheconsidertheSovietUnionapositiverepresentationofthepossibilitiesofsocialistsociety.HecouldnotturnablindeyetothecrueltiesandhypocrisiesofSovietCommunistParty,whichhadoverturnedthesemifeudalsystemofthetsarsonlytoreplaceitwiththedictatorialreignofJosephStalin.Orwellbecameasharpcriticofbothcapitalismandcommunism,andisrememberedchieflyasanadvocateoffreedomandacommittedopponentofcommunistoppression.Histwogreatestanti-totalitariannovels—Animalfarmand1984—formthebasisofhisreputation.Orwelldiedin1950,onlyayearaftercompleting1984,whichmanyconsiderhismasterpiece.

Adystopiannovel,1984attackstheideaoftotalitariancommunism(apoliticalsysteminwhichonerulingpartyplansandcontrolsthecollectivesocialactionofastate)bypaintingaterrifyingpictureofaworldinwhichpersonalfreedomisnonexistent.AnimalFarm,writtenin1945,dealswithsimilarthemesbutinashorterandsomewhatsimplerformat.A“fairystory”inthestyleofAesop''''sfables,itusesanimalsonanEnglishfarmtotellthehistoryofSovietcommunism.CertainanimalsarebaseddirectlyonCommunistPartyleaders:thepigsNapoleonandSnowball,forexample,arefigurationsofJosephStalinandLeonTrotsky,respectively.Orwellusestheformofthefableforanumberofaestheticandpoliticalreasons.Tobetterunderstandthese,itishelpfultoknowatleasttherudimentsofSoviethistoryunderCommunistPartyrule,beginningwiththeOctoberRevolutionof1917.

InFebruary1917,TsarNicholasII,themonarchofRussia,abdicatedandthesocialistAlexanderKerenskybecamepremier.AttheendofOctober(November7oncurrentcalendars),Kerenskywasousted,andVladimirLenin,thearchitectoftheRussianRevolution,becamechiefcommissar.Almostimmediately,aswarsragedonvirtuallyeveryRussianfront,Lenin''''schiefalliesbeganjockeyingforpowerinthenewlyformedstate;themostinfluentialincludedJosephStalin,LeonTrotsky,GregoryZinoviev,andLevKamenev.TrotskyandStalinemergedasthemostlikelyheirstoLenin''''svastpower.Trotskywasapopularandcharismaticleader,famousforhisimpassionedspeeches,whilethetaciturnStalinpreferredtoconsolidatehispowerbehindthescenes.AfterLenin''''sdeathin1924,StalinorchestratedanallianceagainstTrotskythatincludedhimself,Zinoviev,andKaminev.Inthefollowingyears,StalinsucceededinbecomingtheunquestioneddictatoroftheSovietUnionandhadTrotskyexpelledfirstfromMoscow,thenfromtheCommunistParty,andfinallyfromRussiaaltogetherin1936.TrotskyfledtoMexico,wherehewasassassinatedonStalin''''sordersin1940.

In1934,Stalin''''sallySergeKirovwasassassinatedinLeningrad,promptingStalintocommencehisinfamouspurgesoftheCommunistParty.Holding“showtrials”—trialswhoseoutcomesheandhisallieshadalreadydecided—StalinhadhisopponentsofficiallydenouncedasparticipantsinTrotskyistoranti-Stalinistconspiraciesandthereforeas“enemiesofthepeople,”anappellationthatguaranteedtheirimmediateexecution.AstheSovietgovernment''''seconomicplanningfalteredandfailed,Russiasufferedunderasurgeofviolence,fear,andstarvation.Stalinusedhisformeropponentasatooltoplacatethewretchedpopulace.Trotskybecameacommonnationalenemyandthusasourceofnegativeunity.Hewasafrighteningspecterusedtoconjurehorrifyingeventualities,incomparisonwithwhichthecurrentmiserypaled.Additionally,byassociatinghisenemieswithTrotsky''''sname,StalincouldensuretheirimmediateandautomaticeliminationfromtheCommunistParty.

TheseandmanyotherdevelopmentsinSoviethistorybefore1945havedirectparallelsinAnimalFarm:NapoleonoustsSnowballfromthefarmand,afterthewindmillcollapses,usesSnowballinhispurgesjustasStalinusedTrotsky.Similarly,Napoleonbecomesadictator,whileSnowballisneverheardfromagain.OrwellwasinspiredtowriteAnimalFarminpartbyhisexperiencesinaTrotskyistgroupduringtheSpanishCivilWar,andSnowballcertainlyreceivesamoresympatheticportrayalthanNapoleon.ButthoughAnimalFarmwaswrittenasanattackonaspecificgovernment,itsgeneralthemesofoppression,suffering,andinjusticehavefarbroaderapplication;modernreadershavecometoseeOrwell''''sbookasapowerfulattackonanypolitical,rhetorical,ormilitarypowerthatseekstocontrolhumanbeingsunjustly.

HistoricalContext

Russiansocietyintheearlytwentiethcenturywasbipolar:atinyminoritycontrolledmostofthecountry''''swealth,whilethevastmajorityofthecountry''''munismaroseinRussiawhenthenation''''sworkersandpeasants,assistedbyaclassofconcernedintellectualsknownastheintelligentsia,rebelledagainstandoverwhelmedthewealthyandpowerfulclassofcapitalistsandaristocrats.TheyhopedtoestablishasocialistutopiabasedontheprinciplesoftheGermaneconomicandpoliticalphilosopherKarlMarx.

InDasKapital(Capital),Marxadvancedaneconomicallydeterministicinterpretationofhumanhistory,arguingthatsocietywouldnaturallyevolve—fromamonarchyandaristocracy,tocapitalism,andthenontocommunism,asystemunderwhichallpropertywouldbeheldincommon.Thedignityofthepoorworkersoppressedbycapitalismwouldberestored,andallpeoplewouldliveasequals.MarxfollowedthissoberandscholarlyworkwithTheCommunistManifesto,animpassionedcalltoactionthaturged,“Workersoftheworld,unite!”

IntheRussiaof1917,itappearedthatMarx''''sdreamsweretobecomereality.Afterapoliticallycomplicatedcivilwar,TsarNicholasII,themonarchofRussia,wasforcedtoabdicatethethronethathisfamilyhadheldforthreecenturies.VladimirIlychLenin,aRussianintellectualrevolutionary,seizedpowerinthenameoftheCommunistParty.Thenewregimetooklandandindustryfromprivatecontrolandputthemundergovernmentsupervision.ThiscentralizationofeconomicsystemsconstitutedthefirststepsinrestoringRussiatotheprosperityithadknownbeforeWorldWarIandinmodernizingthenation''''sprimitiveinfrastructure,includingbringingelectricitytothecountryside.AfterLenindiedin1924,JosephStalinandLeonTrotskyjockeyedforcontrolofthenewlyformedSovietUnion.Stalin,acraftyandmanipulativepolitician,soonbanishedTrotsky,anidealisticproponentofinternationalcommunism.Stalinthenbegantoconsolidatehispowerwithbrutalintensity,killingorimprisoninghisperceivedpoliticalenemiesandoverseeingthepurgeofapproximatelytwentymillionSovietcitizens.